Cantonese - Wikipedia

Cantonese is a language within the Chinese (Sinitic) branch of the Sino-Tibetan languages originating from the city of Guangzhou (historically known as ... Cantonese FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch VarietyofYueChinesespokeninGuangzhou,HongKongandMacau ThisarticleisaboutthevarietyofChinesewidelyspokeninGuangdong,HongKongandMacau.Forrelatedlanguagesanddialects,seeYueChinese.Forthepeoplegroupthatspeaksthislanguage,seeCantonesepeople.Forotheruses,seeCantonese(disambiguation). Cantonese廣東話GwóngdūngwáGwóngdūngwáwrittenintraditionalChinese(left)andsimplifiedChinese(right)charactersNative toChina,HongKong,Macau,andoverseascommunitiesRegionGuangdong,easternGuangxiEthnicityCantonesepeopleLanguagefamilySino-Tibetan SiniticYueYuehaiCantoneseDialects Xiguan HongKong Malaysian WritingsystemWrittenCantoneseCantoneseBrailleWrittenChineseOfficialstatusOfficiallanguage in HongKong MacauLanguagecodesISO639-3yue(supersetforallYuedialects)Glottologcant1236Linguasphere79-AAA-ma ThisarticleispartoftheseriesontheCantoneselanguage YueChinese Grammar Measurewords Pronouns Orthography CantoneseBraille CantoneseBopomofo CantonesePinyin YaleromanizationofCantonese Jyutping Phonology Nasal-stopalternation WikipediaIPAforCantonese vte Cantonese(traditionalChinese:廣東話;simplifiedChinese:广东话;Yale:Gwóngdūngwá)isalanguagewithintheChinese(Sinitic)branchoftheSino-TibetanlanguagesoriginatingfromthecityofGuangzhou(historicallyknownasCanton)anditssurroundingareainSoutheasternChina.ItisthetraditionalprestigevarietyoftheYueChinesedialectgroup,whichhasover80millionnativespeakers.[1]WhilethetermCantonesespecificallyreferstotheprestigevariety,itisoftenusedtorefertotheentireYuesubgroupofChinese,includingrelatedbutlargelymutuallyunintelligiblelanguagesanddialectssuchasTaishanese. CantoneseisviewedasavitalandinseparablepartoftheculturalidentityforitsnativespeakersacrosslargeswathsofSoutheasternChina,HongKongandMacau,aswellasinoverseascommunities.InmainlandChina,itisthelinguafrancaoftheprovinceofGuangdong(beingthemajoritylanguageofthePearlRiverDelta)andneighbouringareassuchasGuangxi.Itisalsothedominantandco-officiallanguageofHongKongandMacau.CantoneseisalsowidelyspokenamongstOverseasChineseinSoutheastAsia(mostnotablyinVietnamandMalaysia,aswellasinSingaporeandCambodiatoalesserextent)andthroughouttheWesternworld. AlthoughCantonesesharesmuchvocabularywithMandarin,thetwoSiniticlanguagesaremutuallyunintelligible,largelybecauseofphonologicaldifferences,butalsoduetodifferencesingrammarandvocabulary.Sentencestructure,inparticulartheplacementofverbs,sometimesdiffersbetweenthetwovarieties.AnotabledifferencebetweenCantoneseandMandarinishowthespokenwordiswritten(akatheirwrittenvernacularforms);bothcanberecordedverbatim,butnotmanyCantonesespeakersareknowledgeableinthefullCantonesewrittenvocabulary.Also,writteninformal(vernacular)CantoneseisforbiddeninschoolworkandgovernmentdocumentssinceitisseenasinformalandcontainsfeaturesuniquetoCantonese;informalcontextsStandardChinese,whichisdevelopeduponMandarinChinese,isusedinstead.StandardChinesecanbereadverbatiminCantoneseforamoreliterarytone,butiscommonlyreadwithafewminorcharactersubstitutionsthathavethesamemeaning(eg.唔ratherthan不,嘅ratherthan的,佢ratherthan他).Conversely,writteninformal(vernacular)Cantoneseismostlyusedinsocialmediaandonlinecommunication.[2][3]ThisresultsinthesituationinwhichCantonesetextsinofficialdocumentsandMandarintextsmaylooksimilarbutarepronounceddifferently,whereCantonesetextsinonlineplatformssuchasblogsandforumscouldnotbefullyunderstoodbynativeMandarinspeakers,thoughnativeMandarinspeakersmayguessthebriefmeaningofwrittenCantonesetexts. Contents 1Names 2History 3Geographicdistribution 3.1HongKongandMacau 3.2MainlandChina 3.3SoutheastAsia 3.3.1Vietnam 3.3.2Malaysia 3.3.3Singapore 3.3.4Cambodia 3.3.5Thailand 3.3.6Indonesia 3.4NorthAmerica 3.4.1UnitedStates 3.4.2Canada 3.5WesternEurope 3.5.1UnitedKingdom 3.5.2France 3.5.3Portugal 3.6Australia 4Culturalrole 5Phonology 5.1Initialsandfinals 5.2Tones 6WrittenCantonese 7Romanization 7.1EarlyWesterneffort 7.2CantoneseromanizationinHongKong 7.3Comparison 7.3.1Initials 7.3.2Finals 7.3.3Tones 8Seealso 9References 9.1Citations 9.2Workscited 10Furtherreading 11Externallinks Names[edit] CantoneseTraditional Chinese廣東話SimplifiedChinese广东话CantoneseYaleGwóngdūngwá TranscriptionsStandardMandarinHanyuPinyinGuǎngdōnghuàYue:CantoneseYaleRomanizationGwóngdūngwáJyutpingGwong2dung1waa2'Cantonspeech'or'Guangzhouspeech'Traditional Chinese廣州話SimplifiedChinese广州话CantoneseYaleGwóngjāuwá TranscriptionsStandardMandarinHanyuPinyinGuǎngzhōuhuàYue:CantoneseYaleRomanizationGwóngjāuwáJyutpingGwong2zau1waa2 InEnglish,theterm"Cantonese"canbeambiguous.CantoneseproperisthevarietynativetothecityofCanton,whichisthetraditionalEnglishnameofGuangzhou.Thisnarrowsensemaybespecifiedas"Cantonlanguage"[4]or"Guangzhoulanguage".[5] However,"Cantonese"mayalsorefertotheprimarybranchofChinesethatcontainsCantoneseproperaswellasTaishaneseandGaoyang;thisbroaderusagemaybespecifiedas"Yuespeech"(粵語;粤语;Yuhtyúh).Inthisarticle,"Cantonese"isusedforCantoneseproper. Historically,speakerscalledthisvariety"Cantonspeech"(廣州話;广州话;Gwóngjāuwá),althoughthistermisnowseldomusedoutsidemainlandChina.InGuangdongandGuangxi,peoplealsocallit"provincialcapitalspeech"(省城話;省城话;Sáangsìngwá)or"plainspeech"(白話;白话;Baahkwá).Also,academicallycalled"Cantonprefecturespeech"(廣府話;广府话;Gwóngfúwá).[citationneeded] InHongKongandMacau,aswellasamongoverseasChinesecommunities,thelanguageisreferredtoas"Guangdongspeech"or"CantonProvinceSpeech"(廣東話;广东话;Gwóngdūngwá)orsimplyas"Chinese"(中文;Jūngmán).[6][7] History[edit] Seealso:YueChinese ChinesedictionaryfromtheTangdynasty.ModernCantonesepronunciationpreservesalmostallterminalconsonants(-m,-n,-ng,-p,-t,-k)fromMiddleChinese. DuringtheSouthernSongperiod,Guangzhoubecametheculturalcenteroftheregion.[8]CantoneseemergedastheprestigevarietyofYueChinesewhentheportcityofGuangzhouonthePearlRiverDeltabecamethelargestportinChina,withatradenetworkstretchingasfarasArabia.[9]CantonesewasalsousedinthepopularYuè'ōu,MùyúandNányīnfolksonggenres,aswellasCantoneseopera.[10][11]Additionally,adistinctclassicalliteraturewasdevelopedinCantonese,withMiddleChinesetextssoundingmoresimilartomodernCantonesethanotherpresent-dayChinesevarieties,includingMandarin.[12] AsGuangzhoubecameChina'skeycommercialcenterforforeigntradeandexchangeinthe1700s,CantonesebecamethevarietyofChineseinteractingmostwiththeWesternWorld.[9]Aroundthisperiodandcontinuingintothe1900s,theancestorsofmostofthepopulationofHongKongandMacauarrivedfromGuangzhouandsurroundingareasaftertheywerecededtoBritainandPortugal,respectively.[13]AftertheXinhaiRevolutionof1912,CantonesealmostbecametheofficiallanguageoftheRepublicofChinabutlostbyasmallmargin.[14] InMainlandChina,StandardMandarinhasbeenheavilypromotedasthemediumofinstructioninschoolsandastheofficiallanguage,especiallyafterthecommunisttakeoverin1949.Meanwhile,CantonesehasremainedtheofficialvarietyofChineseinHongKongandMacau,bothduringandafterthecolonialperiod.[15] Geographicdistribution[edit] HongKongandMacau[edit] Seealso:HongKongCantonese TheofficiallanguagesofHongKongareChineseandEnglish,asdefinedintheHongKongBasicLaw.[16]TheChineselanguagehasmanydifferentvarieties,ofwhichCantoneseisone.GiventhetraditionalpredominanceofCantonesewithinHongKong,itisthedefactoofficialspokenformoftheChineselanguageusedintheHongKongGovernmentandallcourtsandtribunals.Itisalsousedasthemediumofinstructioninschools,alongsideEnglish. AsimilarsituationalsoexistsinneighboringMacau,whereChineseisanofficiallanguagealongsidePortuguese.AsinHongKong,CantoneseisthepredominantspokenvarietyofChineseusedineverydaylifeandisthustheofficialformofChineseusedinthegovernment.TheCantonesespokeninHongKongandMacauismutuallyintelligiblewiththeCantonesespokeninthemainlandcityofGuangzhou,althoughthereexistsomeminordifferencesinaccent,pronunciation,andvocabulary. MainlandChina[edit] DistributionofYueChineselanguagesinSoutheasternChina.StandardCantoneseandcloselyrelateddialectsarehighlightedinpink. CantonesefirstdevelopedaroundtheportcityofGuangzhouinthePearlRiverDeltaregionofsoutheasternChina.Duetothecity'slongstandingasanimportantculturalcenter,CantoneseemergedastheprestigedialectoftheYuevarietiesofChineseintheSouthernSongdynastyanditsusagespreadaroundmostofwhatisnowtheprovincesofGuangdongandGuangxi.[8] DespitethecessionofMacautoPortugalin1557andHongKongtoBritainin1842,theethnicChinesepopulationofthetwoterritorieslargelyoriginatedfromthe19thand20thcenturyimmigrationfromGuangzhouandsurroundingareas,makingCantonesethepredominantChineselanguageintheterritories.Onthemainland,CantonesecontinuedtoserveasthelinguafrancaofGuangdongandGuangxiprovincesevenafterMandarinwasmadetheofficiallanguageofthegovernmentbytheQingdynastyintheearly1900s.[17]CantoneseremainedadominantandinfluentiallanguageinsoutheasternChinauntiltheestablishmentofthePeople'sRepublicofChinain1949anditspromotionofStandardMandarinChineseasthesoleofficiallanguageofthenationthroughoutthelasthalfofthe20thcentury,althoughitsinfluencestillremainsstrongwithintheregion.[18] WhiletheChinesegovernmentvehementlydiscouragestheofficialuseofallformsofChineseexceptStandardMandarin,CantoneseenjoysarelativelyhigherstandingthanotherChineselanguages,withitsownmediaandusageinpublictransportationinGuangdongprovince.[19]Furthermore,itisalsoamediumofinstructioninselectacademiccurricula,includingsomeuniversityelectivecoursesandChineseasaforeignlanguageprograms.[20][21]ThepermittedusageofCantoneseinmainlandChinaislargelyacountermeasureagainstHongKong'sinfluence,astheautonomousterritoryhastherighttofreedomofthepressandspeechanditsCantonese-languagemediahaveasubstantialexposureandfollowinginGuangdong.[15] Nevertheless,theplaceoflocalCantoneselanguageandcultureremainscontentious,aswithothernon-MandarinChineselanguages.[22]A2010proposaltoswitchsomeprogrammingonGuangzhoutelevisionfromCantonesetoMandarinwasabandonedfollowingmassivepublicprotests,thelargestsincetheTiananmenSquareprotestsof1989.AsamajoreconomiccenterofChina,therehavebeenrecentconcernsthattheuseofCantoneseinGuangzhouisdiminishinginfavourofMandarin,boththroughthecontinualinfluxofMandarin-speakingmigrantsfromimpoverishedareasandstrictgovernmentpolicies.Asaresult,Cantoneseisbeinggivenamoreimportantstatusbythenativesthaneverbeforeasacommonidentityofthelocalpeople.[23] DespitesomedeclineinCantoneseusageinGuangdongprovince,itssurvivalisstilldoingbetterthanotherChinesedialectsduetothelocalculturalprestige,pride,popularity,andespeciallywiththewideavailabilityandpopularityofCantoneseentertainmentandmediafrombothGuangzhouandespeciallyfromHongKong,whichismaintainingtheencouragementsofthelocalCantonesespeakerstowanttocontinuetopreservetheircultureandlanguageversusotherChinesedialectalspeakingregionsaremuchmorelimitedwiththeirencouragementstomaintaintheirlocaldialectsastheyhaveverylimitedtonomediaorentertainmentoutletstocatertotheirlocaldialects.Backinthe1980s-90s,migrantsfrommanypartsofChinasettlinginGuangzhouoranywhereinGuangdongshowedmoreinteresttolearningCantoneseandwantingtointegrateintothelocalculturalenvironmentseeingitastrendyandrichduetothepopularityofHongKongentertainment,butsincethe2000s,thenewermigrantsettlersincreasinglyshowedlessinterestinthelocalcultureandveryoftenstrictlydemandingtheofficialobligationsofthelocalresidentstocommandspeakingMandarinastheofficialChineselanguagetothem.Thoughasofthe2020s,someadditionalrenewedeffortstopreservetheCantoneselanguageandculturehavebeenintroducedwithsomeschoolsinGuangzhounowstartingtoteachsomelimitedCantoneselanguageclasses,activitiesrelatedtoCantoneselanguageandcultureandaswellashostingCantoneseappreciationculturalevents.ManylocalCantonesespeakingfamiliesinGuangdongprovinceoverallingeneralincludinginGuangzhouhavestartedplacingmorestrongeremphasistoencouragetheuseofCantonesewiththeirchildrentopreservethelocallanguageandculture.[24][25][26] SoutheastAsia[edit] CantonesehashistoricallyservedasalinguafrancaamongoverseasChineseinSoutheastAsia,whospeakavarietyofotherformsofChineseincludingHokkien,Teochew,andHakka.[27]Additionally,CantonesemediaandpopularculturefromHongKongispopularthroughouttheregion. Vietnam[edit] Seealso:Hoapeople InVietnam,CantoneseisthedominantlanguageofthemainethnicChinesecommunity,usuallyreferredtoasHoa,whichnumbersaboutonemillionpeopleandconstitutesoneofthelargestminoritygroupsinthecountry.[28]OverhalfoftheethnicChinesepopulationinVietnamspeaksCantoneseasanativelanguageandthevarietyalsoservesasalinguafrancabetweenthedifferentChinesedialectgroups.ManyspeakersreflecttheirexposuretoVietnamesewithaVietnameseaccentoratendencytocode-switchbetweenCantoneseandVietnamese.Englishcanbeusedsinceithasgainedinpopularity.[29] Malaysia[edit] Mainarticle:MalaysianCantonese Seealso:MalaysianChinese§ Cantonese InMalaysia,CantoneseiswidelyspokenamongsttheMalaysianChinesecommunityinthecapitalcityofKualaLumpur[30]andthesurroundingareasintheKlangValley(PetalingJaya,Ampang,Cheras,Selayang,SungaiBuloh,Puchong,ShahAlam,Kajang,Bangi,andSubangJaya).ThelanguageisalsowidelyspokenaswellinthetownofSekinchaninthedistrictof SabakBernamlocatedinthenorthernpartofSelangorstateandalsointhestateofPerak,especiallyinthestatecapitalcityofIpohanditssurroundingtownsofGopeng,BatuGajah,andKamparoftheKintaValleyregionplusthetownsofTapahandBidorinthesouthernpartofthePerakstate,andalsowidelyspokenintheeasternSabahantownofSandakanaswellasthetownsofKuantan,Raub,Bentong,andMentakabinPahangstate,andtheyarealsofoundinotherareassuchasSarikei,Sarawak,andMersing,Johor. AlthoughHokkienisthemostnativelyspokenvarietyofChineseandMandarinisthemediumofeducationatChinese-languageschools,CantoneseislargelyinfluentialinthelocalChinesemediaandisusedincommercebyChineseMalaysians.[31] DuetothepopularityofHongKongpopularculture,especiallythroughdramaseriesandpopularmusic,CantoneseiswidelyunderstoodbytheChineseinallpartsofMalaysia,eventhoughalargeproportionoftheChineseMalaysianpopulationisnon-Cantonese.TelevisionnetworksinMalaysiaregularlybroadcastHongKongtelevisionprogrammesintheiroriginalCantoneseaudioandsoundtrack.CantoneseradioisalsoavailableinthenationandCantoneseisprevalentinlocallyproducedChinesetelevision.[32][33] CantonesespokeninMalaysiaandSingaporeoftenexhibitsinfluencesfromMalayandotherChinesevarietiesspokeninthecountry,suchasHokkienandTeochew.[34] GuangxiCantoneseDialectisstillsomewhatoftenspokeninpartsofMalaysia. Singapore[edit] Seealso:ChineseSingaporeansandLanguagesofSingapore InSingapore,MandarinistheofficialvarietyoftheChineselanguageusedbythegovernment,whichhasaSpeakMandarinCampaign(SMC)seekingtoactivelypromotetheuseofMandarinattheexpenseofotherChinesevarieties.Cantoneseisspokenbyalittleover15%ofChinesehouseholdsinSingapore.Despitethegovernment'sactivepromotionofSMC,theCantonese-speakingChinesecommunityhasbeenrelativelysuccessfulinpreservingitslanguagefromMandarincomparedtootherdialectgroups.[35] Notably,allnationallyproducednon-MandarinChineseTVandradioprogramswerestoppedafter1979.[36]Theprimeminister,LeeKuanYew,then,alsostoppedgivingspeechesinHokkientopreventgivingconflictingsignalstothepeople.[36]HongKong(Cantonese)andTaiwanesedramasareunavailableintheiruntranslatedformonfree-to-airtelevision,thoughdramaseriesinnon-Chineselanguagesareavailableintheiroriginallanguages.CantonesedramaseriesonterrestrialTVchannelsareinsteaddubbedinMandarinandbroadcastwithouttheoriginalCantoneseaudioandsoundtrack.However,originalsmaybeavailablethroughothersourcessuchascabletelevisionandonlinevideos. Furthermore,anoffshootofSMCisthetranslationtoHanyuPinyinofcertaintermswhichoriginatedfromsouthernChinesevarieties.Forinstance,dimsumisoftenknownasdiǎnxīninSingapore'sEnglish-languagemedia,thoughthisislargelyamatterofstyle,andmostSingaporeanswillstillrefertoitasdimsumwhenspeakingEnglish.[37] Nevertheless,sincethegovernmentrestrictiononmediainnon-Mandarinvarietieswasrelaxedinthemid-1990sand2000s,thepresenceofCantoneseinSingaporehasgrownsubstantially.FormsofpopularculturefromHongKong,suchastelevisionseries,cinemaandpopmusichavebecomepopularinSingaporeansociety,andnon-dubbedoriginalversionsofthemediabecamewidelyavailable.Consequently,thereisagrowingnumberofnon-CantoneseChineseSingaporeansbeingabletounderstandorspeakCantonesetosomevaryingextent,withanumberofeducationalinstitutesofferingCantoneseasanelectivelanguagecourse.[38] Cambodia[edit] Cantoneseiswidelyusedastheinter-communallanguageamongChineseCambodians,especiallyinPhnomPenhandotherurbanareas.WhileTeochewspeakersformthemajorityoftheChinesepopulationinCambodia,CantoneseisoftenusedasavernacularincommerceandwithotherChinesevariantgroupsinthenation.[39]Chinese-languageschoolsinCambodiaareconductedinbothCantoneseandMandarin,butschoolsmaybeconductedexclusivelyinoneChinesevariantortheother.[40] Thailand[edit] WhileThailandishometothelargestoverseasChinesecommunityintheworld,thevastmajorityofethnicChineseinthecountryspeakThaiexclusively.[41]AmongChinese-speakingThaihouseholds,Cantoneseisthefourthmost-spokenvarietyofChineseafterTeochew,HakkaandHainanese.[42]Nevertheless,withintheThaiChinesecommercialsector,itservesasacommonlanguagealongsideTeocheworThai.Chinese-languageschoolsinThailandhavealsotraditionallybeenconductedinCantonese.Furthermore,CantoneseservesasthelinguafrancawithotherChinesecommunitiesintheregion.[43] Indonesia[edit] Seealso:IndonesianChinese§ Language InIndonesia,CantoneseislocallyknownasKonghuandisoneofthevariantsspokenbytheChineseIndonesiancommunity,withspeakerslargelyconcentratedinmajorcitiessuchasJakarta,SurabayaandBatam.However,ithasarelativelyminorpresencecomparedtootherSoutheastAsiannations,beingthefourthmostspokenChinesevarietyafterHokkien,HakkaandTeochew.[44] NorthAmerica[edit] UnitedStates[edit] StreetinChinatown,SanFrancisco.CantonesehastraditionallybeenthedominantChinesevariantamongChinesepopulationsintheWesternworld. Overaperiodof150years,[specify]Guangdonghasbeentheplace-of-originformostChineseemigrantstoWesternnations;onecoastalcounty,Taishan(orTóisàn,wheretheSìyìorseiyapvarietyofYueisspoken),alonemaybetheoriginofthevastmajorityofChineseimmigrantstotheU.S.before1965.[45]Asaresult,YuelanguagessuchasCantoneseandthecloselyrelatedvarietyofTaishanesehavebeenthemajorChinesevarietiestraditionallyspokenintheUnitedStates. TheZhongshanvariantofCantonese,whichoriginatedfromthewesternPearlRiverDelta,isspokenbymanyChineseimmigrantsinHawaii,andsomeinSanFranciscoandtheSacramentoRiverDelta(seeLocke,California).ItisaYuehaivarietymuchlikeGuangzhouCantonesebuthas"flatter"tones.Chineseisthesecondmostwidelyspokennon-EnglishlanguageintheUnitedStateswhenbothCantoneseandMandarinarecombined,behindSpanish.[46]ManyinstitutesofhighereducationhavetraditionallyhadChineseprogramsbasedonCantonese,withsomecontinuingtooffertheseprogramsdespitetheriseofMandarin.ThemostpopularromanizationforlearningCantoneseintheUnitedStatesisYaleRomanization. ThemajorityofChineseemigrantshavetraditionallyoriginatedfromGuangdongandGuangxi,aswellasHongKongandMacau(beginninginthelatterhalfofthe20thcenturyandbeforetheHandover)andSoutheastAsia,withCantoneseastheirnativelanguage.However,morerecentimmigrantsarearrivingfromtherestofmainlandChinaandTaiwanandmostoftenspeakStandardMandarin(Putonghua)astheirnativelanguage,[47][48]althoughsomemayalsospeaktheirnativelocalvariety,suchasShanghainese,Hokkien,Fuzhounese,Hakka,etc.Asaresult,MandarinisbecomingmorecommonamongtheChineseAmericancommunity. TheincreaseofMandarin-speakingcommunitieshasresultedintheriseofseparateneighborhoodsorenclavessegregatedbytheprimaryChinesevarietyspoken.Socioeconomicstatusesarealsoafactor.[49]Forexample,inNewYorkCity,Cantonesestillpredominatesinthecity'solder,traditionalwesternportionofChinatowninManhattanandinBrooklyn'ssmallnewChinatownsinBensonhurstandHomecrest.ThenewlyemergedLittleFuzhoueasternportionofManhattan'sChinatownandBrooklyn'smainlargeChinatowninandaroundSunsetParkaremostlypopulatedbyFuzhounesespeakers,whooftenspeakMandarinaswell.TheCantoneseandFuzhouneseenclavesinNewYorkCityaremoreworkingclass.However,duetotherapidgentrificationofManhattan'sChinatownandwithNYC'sCantoneseandFuzhoupopulationsnowincreasinglyshiftingtootherChineseenclavesintheOuterBoroughsofNYC,suchasBrooklynandQueens,butmainlyinBrooklyn'snewerChinatowns,theCantonesespeakingpopulationinNYCisnowincreasinglyconcentratedinBensonhurst'sLittleHongKong/GuangdongandHomecrest'sLittleHongKong/Guangdong.TheFuzhoupopulationofNYCisbecomingincreasinglyconcentratedinBrooklyn'sSunsetPark,alsoknownasLittleFuzhou,whichiscausingthecity'sgrowingCantoneseandFuzhouenclavestobecomeincreasinglydistancedandisolatedfrombotheachotherandotherChineseenclavesinQueens.Flushing'sChinatown,whichisnowthelargestChinatowninthecity,andElmhurst'ssmallerChinatowninQueensareverydiverse,withlargenumbersofMandarinspeakersfromdifferentregionsofChinaandTaiwan.TheChinatownsofQueenscomprisetheprimaryculturalcenterforNewYorkCity'sChinesepopulationandaremoremiddleclass.[50][51][52][53][54][55][56] InNorthernCalifornia,especiallytheSanFranciscoBayArea,CantonesehashistoricallyandcontinuestodominateintheChinatownsofSanFranciscoandOakland,aswellasthesurroundingsuburbsandmetropolitanarea,althoughsincethelate2000saconcentrationofMandarinspeakershasformedinSiliconValley.Incontrast,SouthernCaliforniahostsamuchlargerMandarin-speakingpopulation,withCantonesefoundinmorehistoricalChinesecommunitiessuchasthatofChinatown,LosAngeles,andolderChineseethnoburbssuchasSanGabriel,Rosemead,andTempleCity.[57]MandarinpredominatesinmuchoftheemergentChineseAmericanenclavesineasternLosAngelesCountyandotherareasofthemetropolitanregion. Whileanumberofmore-establishedTaiwaneseimmigrantshavelearnedCantonesetofosterrelationswiththetraditionalCantonese-speakingChineseAmericanpopulation,morerecentarrivalsandthelargernumberofmainlandChineseimmigrantshavelargelycontinuedtouseMandarinastheexclusivevarietyofChinese.Thishasledtoalinguisticdiscriminationthathasalsocontributedtosocialconflictsbetweenthetwosides,withagrowingnumberofChineseAmericans(includingAmerican-bornChinese)ofCantonesebackgrounddefendingthehistoricChinese-AmericancultureagainsttheimpactsofincreasingMandarin-speakingnewarrivals.[49][58] Canada[edit] CantoneseisthemostcommonChinesevarietyspokenamongChineseCanadians.AccordingtotheCanada2016Census,therewere565,275CanadianresidentswhoreportedCantoneseastheirnativelanguage.Amongtheself-reportedCantonesespeakers,44%wereborninHongKong,27%wereborninGuangdongProvinceinChina,and18%wereCanadian-born.Cantonese-speakerscanbefoundineverycitywithaChinesecommunity.ThemajorityofCantonese-speakersinCanadaliveintheGreaterTorontoAreaandMetroVancouver.TherearesufficientCantonese-speakersinCanadathatthereexistlocally-producedCantoneseTVandradioprogramming,suchasFairchildTV. AsintheUnitedStates,theChineseCanadiancommunitytracesitsrootstoearlyimmigrantsfromGuangdongduringthelatterhalfofthe19thcentury.[59]LaterChineseimmigrantscamefromHongKongintwowaves,firstinthelate1960stomid1970s,andagaininthe1980stolate1990sonfearsarisingfromthe1989TiananmenSquareProtestsandimpendinghandovertothePeople'sRepublicofChina.Chinese-speakingimmigrantsfromconflictzonesinSoutheastAsia,especiallyVietnam,arrivedaswell,beginninginthemid-1970sandwerealsolargelyCantonese-speaking. WesternEurope[edit] UnitedKingdom[edit] TheoverwhelmingmajorityofChinesespeakersintheUnitedKingdomuseCantonese,withabout300,000Britishpeopleclaimingitastheirfirstlanguage.[60]ThisislargelyduetothepresenceofBritishHongKongersandthefactthatmanyBritishChinesealsohaveoriginsintheformerBritishcoloniesinSoutheastAsiaofSingaporeandMalaysia. France[edit] AmongtheChinesecommunityinFrance,CantoneseisspokenbyimmigrantswhofledtheformerFrenchIndochina(Vietnam,CambodiaandLaos)followingtheconflictsandcommunisttakeoversintheregionduringthe1970s.WhileaslightmajorityofethnicChinesefromIndochinaspeakTeochewathome,knowledgeofCantoneseisprevalentduetoitshistoricprestigestatusintheregionandisusedforcommercialandcommunitypurposesbetweenthedifferentChinesevarietygroups.AsintheUnitedStates,thereisadividebetweenCantonese-speakersandthosespeakingothermainlandChinesevarieties.[61] Portugal[edit] CantoneseisspokenbyethnicChineseinPortugalwhooriginatefromMacau,themostestablishedChinesecommunityinthenationwithapresencedatingbacktothe16thcenturyandPortuguesecolonialism.Sincethelate-20thcentury,however,Mandarin-andWu-speakingmigrantsfrommainlandChinahaveoutnumberedthosefromMacau,althoughCantoneseisstillretainedamongmainstreamChinesecommunityassociations.[62] Australia[edit] CantonesehastraditionallybeenthedominantChineselanguageoftheChineseAustraliancommunitysincethefirstethnicChinesesettlersarrivedinthe1850s.Itmaintainedthisstatusuntilthemid-2000s,whenaheavyincreaseinimmigrationfromMandarin-speakerslargelyfromMainlandChinaledtoMandarinsurpassingCantoneseasthedominantChinesedialectspoken.Cantoneseisthethirdmost-spokenlanguageinAustralia.Inthe2011census,theAustralianBureauofStatisticslisted336,410and263,673speakersofMandarinandCantonese,respectively.By2016,thosenumbersbecame596,711and280,943.[63] Culturalrole[edit] Seealso:Cantoneseculture LettertotheEmperorbySuXun,1058,recitedandexplainedinCantonesebyJasperTsang. SpokenChinesehasnumerousregionalandlocalvarieties,manyofwhicharemutuallyunintelligible.Mostofthesearerareoutsidetheirnativeareas,thoughtheymaybespokenoutsideofChina.ManyvarietiesalsohaveLiteraryandcolloquialreadingsofChinesecharactersfornewerstandardreadingsounds.Sincea1909Qingdynastydecree,ChinahaspromotedMandarinforuseineducation,themedia,andofficialcommunications.[64]TheproclamationofMandarinastheofficialnationallanguage,however,wasnotfullyacceptedbytheCantoneseauthoritiesintheearly20thcentury,whoarguedforthe"regionaluniqueness"oftheirownlocallanguageandcommercialimportanceoftheregion.[65]Unlikeothernon-MandarinChinesevarieties,Cantonesepersistsinafewstatetelevisionandradiobroadcaststoday. Nevertheless,therehavebeenrecentattemptstominimizetheuseofCantoneseinChina.Themostnotablehasbeenthe2010proposalthatGuangzhouTelevisionincreaseitsbroadcastinMandarinattheexpenseofCantoneseprograms.ThishoweverledtoprotestsinGuangzhou,whicheventuallydissuadedauthoritiesfromgoingforwardwiththeproposal.[66]Additionally,therearereportsofstudentsbeingpunishedforspeakingotherChineselanguagesatschool,resultinginareluctanceofyoungerchildrentocommunicateintheirnativelanguages,includingCantonese.[67]SuchactionshavefurtherprovokedCantonesespeakerstocherishtheirlinguisticidentityincontrasttomigrantswhohavegenerallyarrivedfrompoorerareasofChinaandlargelyspeakMandarinorotherChineselanguages.[68] DuetothelinguistichistoryofHongKongandMacau,andtheuseofCantoneseinmanyestablishedoverseasChinesecommunities,theuseofCantoneseisquitewidespreadcomparedtothepresenceofitsspeakersresidinginChina.CantoneseisthepredominantChinesevarietyspokeninHongKongandMacau.Intheseareas,publicdiscoursetakesplacealmostexclusivelyinCantonese,makingittheonlyvarietyofChineseotherthanMandarintobeusedasanofficiallanguageintheworld.BecauseoftheirdominanceinChinesediasporaoverseas,standardCantoneseanditsdialectTaishaneseareamongthemostcommonChineselanguagesthatonemayencounterintheWest. Increasinglysincethe1997Handover,CantonesehasbeenusedasasymboloflocalidentityinHongKong,largelythroughthedevelopmentofdemocracyintheterritoryanddesinicizationpracticestoemphasiseaseparateHongKongidentity.[69] AsimilaridentityissueexistsintheUnitedStates,whereconflictshavearisenamongChinese-speakersduetoalargerecentinfluxofMandarin-speakers.WhileolderTaiwaneseimmigrantshavelearnedCantonesetofosterintegrationwithinthetraditionalChineseAmericanpopulations,morerecentarrivalsfromtheMainlandcontinuetouseMandarinexclusively.Thishascontributedtoasegregationofcommunitiesbasedonlinguisticcleavage.Inparticular,someChineseAmericans(includingAmerican-bornChinese)ofCantonesebackgroundemphasisetheirnon-Mainlandorigins(e.g.HongKong,Macau,Vietnam,etc.)toasserttheiridentityinthefaceofnewwavesofimmigration.[49][58] AlongwithMandarinandHokkien,Cantonesehasitsownpopularmusic,Cantopop,whichisthepredominantgenreinHongKong.ManyartistsfromtheMainlandandTaiwanhavelearnedCantonesetobreakintothemarket.[70]PopularnativeMandarin-speakingsingers,includingFayeWong,EricMoo,andsingersfromTaiwan,havebeentrainedinCantonesetoadd"HongKong-ness"totheirperformances.[70] CantonesefilmsdatetotheearlydaysofChinesecinema,andthefirstCantonesetalkie,WhiteGoldDragon(白金龍),wasmadein1932bytheTianyiFilmCompany.[71]DespiteabanonCantonesefilmsbytheNanjingauthorityinthe1930s,CantonesefilmproductioncontinuedinHongKongwhichwasthenunderBritishcolonialrule.[65][72]Fromthemid-1970stothe1990s,CantonesefilmsmadeinHongKongwereverypopularintheChinesespeakingworld. Phonology[edit] Mainarticle:Cantonesephonology Seealso:HongKongCantonese Initialsandfinals[edit] ThedefactostandardpronunciationofCantoneseisthatofCanton(Guangzhou).HongKongCantonesehassomeminorvariationsinphonology,butislargelyidenticaltostandardGuangzhouCantonese. InHongKongandMacau,certainphonemepairshavemerged.Althoughtermedas"lazysound"(懶音)andconsideredsubstandardtoGuangzhoupronunciation,thephenomenonhasbeenwidespreadintheterritoriessincetheearly20thcentury.ThemostnotabledifferencebetweenHongKongandGuangzhoupronunciationisthesubstitutionoftheliquidnasal(/l/)forthenasalinitial(/n/)inmanywords.[73]Anexampleofthisismanifestedinthewordforyou(你),pronouncedasnéihinGuangzhouandasléihinHongKong. AnotherkeyfeatureofHongKongCantoneseisthemergingofthetwosyllabicnasals/ŋ̩/and/m̩/.Thiscanbeexemplifiedintheeliminationofthecontrastofsoundsbetween吳(Ng,asurname)(ng4/ǹghinGuangzhoupronunciation)and唔(not)(m4/m̀hinGuangzhoupronunciation).InHongKong,bothwordsarepronouncedasthelatter.[74] Lastly,theinitials/kʷ/and/kʷʰ/canbemergedinto/k/and/kʰ/whenfollowedby/ɔː/.Anexampleisinthewordforcountry(國),pronouncedinstandardGuangzhouasgwokbutasgokwiththemerge.Unliketheabovetwodifferences,thismergeisfoundalongsidethestandardpronunciationinHongKongratherthanbeingreplaced.Educatedspeakersoftensticktothestandardpronunciationbutcanexemplifythemergedpronunciationincasualspeech.Incontrast,lesseducatedspeakerspronouncethemergemorefrequently.[74] Lessprevalent,butstillnotabledifferencesfoundamonganumberofHongKongspeakersinclude: Mergingof/ŋ/initialintonullinitial. Mergingof/ŋ/and/k/codasinto/n/and/t/codasrespectively,eliminatingcontrastbetweenthesepairsoffinals(exceptafter/e/and/o/[clarificationneeded]):/aːn/-/aːŋ/,/aːt/-/aːk/,/ɐn/-/ɐŋ/,/ɐt/-/ɐk/,/ɔːn/-/ɔːŋ/and/ɔːt/-/ɔːk/. Mergingoftherisingtones(陰上2ndand陽上5th).[75] CantonesevowelstendtobetracedfurtherbacktoMiddleChinesethantheirMandarinanalogues,suchasM./aɪ/vs.C./ɔːi/;M./i/vs.C./ɐi/;M./ɤ/vs.C./ɔː/;M./ɑʊ/vs.C./ou/etc.Forconsonants,somedifferencesincludeM./ɕ,tɕ,tɕʰ/vs.C./h,k,kʰ/;M./ʐ/vs.C./j/;andagreatersyllablecodadiversityinCantonese(suchassyllablesendingin-t,-p,or-k). Tones[edit] Generallyspeaking,Cantoneseisatonallanguagewithsixphonetictones. Historically,finalsthatendinastopconsonantwereconsideredas"checkedtones"andtreatedseparatelybydiachronicconvention,identifyingCantonesewithninetones(九声六调).However,theseareseldomcountedasphonemictonesinmodernlinguistics,whichprefertoanalysethemasconditionedbythefollowingconsonant.[76] Syllabletype Tonename darkflat(陰平) darkrising(陰上) darkdeparting(陰去) lightflat(陽平) lightrising(陽上) lightdeparting(陽去) Description highlevel,highfalling mediumrising mediumlevel lowfalling,verylowlevel lowrising lowlevel YaleorJyutpingtonenumber 1 2 3 4 5 6 Example 詩 史 試 時 市 是 Toneletter siː˥,siː˥˧ siː˧˥ siː˧ siː˨˩,siː˩ siː˩˧ siː˨ IPAdiacritic síː,sîː sǐː sīː si̖ː,sı̏ː si̗ː sìː Yalediacritic sī,sì sí si sìh síh sih WrittenCantonese[edit] Mainarticles:WrittenCantoneseandCantoneseBraille AsCantoneseisusedprimarilyinHongKong,Macau,andotheroverseasChinesecommunities,itisusuallywrittenwithtraditionalChinesecharacters.However,itincludesextracharactersaswellascharacterswithdifferentmeaningsfromwrittenvernacularChineseduetothepresenceofwordsthateitherdonotexistinstandardChineseorcorrespondwithspokenCantonese.ThissystemofwrittenCantoneseisoftenfoundincolloquialcontextssuchasentertainmentmagazinesandsocialmedia,aswellasonadvertisements. Incontrast,standardwrittenChinesecontinuestobeusedinformalliterature,professionalandgovernmentdocuments,televisionandmoviesubtitles,andnewsmedia.Nevertheless,colloquialcharactersmaybepresentinformalwrittencommunicationssuchaslegaltestimoniesandnewspaperswhenanindividualisbeingquoted,ratherthanparaphrasingspokenCantoneseintostandardwrittenChinese. Romanization[edit] Thissectionneedsadditionalcitationsforverification.Pleasehelpimprovethisarticlebyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.Findsources: "Cantonese" – news ·newspapers ·books ·scholar ·JSTOR(May2021)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) IthasbeensuggestedthatthissectionbesplitoutintoanotherarticletitledRomanisationofCantonese.(Discuss)(June2021)CantoneseromanizationsystemsarebasedontheaccentofCantonandHongKong,andhavehelpeddefinetheconceptofStandardCantonese.Themajorsystemsare:Jyutping,Yale,theChinesegovernment'sGuangdongRomanization,andMeyer–Wempe.Whiletheydonotdiffergreatly,JyutpingandYalearethetwomostusedandtaughtsystemstodayintheWest.[77]Additionally,HongKonglinguistSidneyLaumodifiedtheYalesystemforhispopularCantonese-as-a-second-languagecourseandisstillinusetoday. WhilethegovernmentsofHongKongandMacauutilizearomanizationsystemforpropernamesandgeographiclocations,theyareinconsistentinthetranscriptionofsomesoundsandthesystemsarenottaughtinschools.Furthermore,thesystemofMacaudiffersslightlyfromHongKong'sinthatthespellingsareinfluencedbythePortugueselanguageduetocolonialhistory.Forexample,whilesomewordsunderMacau'sromanizationsystemarethesameasHongKong's(e.g.,thesurnamesLam林,Chan陳),instancesoftheletter⟨u⟩underHongKong'sromanizationsystemareoftenreplacedby⟨o⟩undertheMacauromanizationsystem(e.g.,ChauvsChao周,LeungvsLeong梁).BoththespellingsofHongKongandMacauCantoneseromanizationsystemsdonotlooksimilartothemainlandChina'spinyinsystem.Generally,plainstopsarewrittenwithvoicedconsonants(/p/,/t/,/ts/,and/k/asb,d,z/j,andgrespectively),andaspiratedstopswithunvoicedones,asinpinyin. EarlyWesterneffort[edit] SystematiceffortstodevelopanalphabeticrepresentationofCantonesebeganwiththearrivalofProtestantmissionariesinChinaearlyinthenineteenthcentury.Romanizationwasconsideredbothatooltohelpnewmissionarieslearnthevarietymoreeasilyandaquickroutefortheunletteredtoachievegospelliteracy.EarlierCatholicmissionaries,mostlyPortuguese,haddevelopedromanizationschemesforthepronunciationcurrentinthecourtandcapitalcityofChinabutmadefeweffortstoromanizeothervarieties. RobertMorrison,thefirstProtestantmissionaryinChinapublisheda"VocabularyoftheCantonDialect"(1828)witharatherunsystematicromanizedpronunciation.ElijahColemanBridgmanandSamuelWellsWilliamsintheir"ChineseChrestomathyintheCantonDialect"(1841)weretheprogenitorsofalong-livedlineageofrelatedromanizationswithminorvariationsembodiedintheworksofJamesDyerBall,ErnstJohannEitel,andImmanuelGottliebGenähr(1910).BridgmanandWilliamsbasedtheirsystemonthephoneticalphabetanddiacriticsproposedbySirWilliamJonesforSouthAsianlanguages. Theirromanizationsystemembodiedthephonologicalsysteminalocaldialectrhymedictionary,theFenyuncuoyao,whichwaswidelyusedandeasilyavailableatthetimeandisstillavailabletoday.SamuelWellsWillams'TonicDictionaryoftheChineseLanguageintheCantonDialect(Yinghuafenyuncuoyao1856),isanalphabeticrearrangement,translationandannotationoftheFenyun.Toadaptthesystemtotheneedsofusersatatimewhentherewereonlylocalvariantsandnostandard—althoughthespeechofthewesternsuburbs,Xiguan,ofGuangzhouwastheprestigevarietyatthetime—Williamssuggestedthatuserslearnandfollowtheirteacher'spronunciationofhischartofCantonesesyllables.ItwasapparentlyBridgman'sinnovationtomarkthetoneswithanopencircle(upperregistertones)oranunderlinedopencircle(lowerregistertones)atthefourcornersoftheromanizedwordinanalogywiththetraditionalChinesesystemofmarkingthetoneofacharacterwithacircle(lowerleftfor"even",upperleftfor"rising",upperrightfor"going",andlowerrightfor"entering"tones). JohnChalmers,inhis"EnglishandCantonesepocket-dictionary"(1859)simplifiedthemarkingoftonesusingtheacuteaccenttomark"rising"tonesandthegravetomark"going"tonesandnodiacriticfor"even"tonesandmarkingupperregistertonesbyitalics(orunderlininginhandwrittenwork)."Entering"tonescouldbedistinguishedbytheirconsonantalending.NicholasBelfeldDennysusedChalmersromanizationinhisprimer.ThismethodofmarkingtoneswasadoptedintheYaleromanization(withlowregistertonesmarkedwithan'h').Anewromanizationwasdevelopedinthefirstdecadeofthetwentiethcenturywhicheliminatedthediacriticsonvowelsbydistinguishingvowelqualitybyspellingdifferences(e.g.a/aa,o/oh).Diacriticswereusedonlyformarkingtones. ThenameofTipsonisassociatedwiththisnewromanizationwhichstillembodiedthephonologyoftheFenyuntosomeextent.ItisthesystemusedinMeyer-WempeandCowles'dictionariesandO'Melia'stextbookandmanyotherworksinthefirsthalfofthetwentiethcentury.ItwasthestandardromanizationuntiltheYalesystemsupplantedit.ThedistinguishedlinguistY.R.ChaodevelopedaCantoneseadaptationofhisGwoyeuRomatzyhsystem.TheBarnett-ChaoromanizationsystemwasfirstusedinChao'sCantonesePrimer,publishedin1947byHarvardUniversityPress(TheCantonesePrimerwasadaptedforMandarinteachingandpublishedbyHarvardUniversityPressin1948asMandarinPrimer).TheBCsystemwasalsousedintextbookspublishedbytheHongKonggovernment. CantoneseromanizationinHongKong[edit] Mainarticle:HongKongGovernmentCantoneseRomanisation AninfluentialworkonCantonese,AChineseSyllabaryPronouncedAccordingtotheDialectofCanton,writtenbyWongShikLing,waspublishedin1941.HederivedanIPA-basedtranscriptionsystem,theS.L.Wongsystem,usedbymanyChinesedictionarieslaterpublishedinHongKong.AlthoughWongalsoderivedaromanizationscheme,alsoknownastheS.L.Wongsystem,itisnotwidelyusedashistranscriptionscheme.ThissystemwasprecededbytheBarnett–ChaosystemusedbytheHongGovernmentLanguageSchool. TheromanizationadvocatedbytheLinguisticSocietyofHongKong(LSHK)iscalledJyutping.ThephoneticvaluesofsomeconsonantsareclosertotheapproximateequivalentsinIPAthaninothersystems.SomeefforthasbeenundertakentopromoteJyutping,butthesuccessofitsproliferationwithintheregionhasyettobeexamined. AnotherpopularschemeisCantonesePinyin,whichistheonlyromanizationsystemacceptedbyHongKongEducationandManpowerBureauandHongKongExaminationsandAssessmentAuthority.Booksandstudiesforteachersandstudentsinprimaryandsecondaryschoolsusuallyusethisscheme.ButthereareteachersandstudentswhousethetranscriptionsystemofS.L.Wong. DespitetheeffortstostandardizeCantoneseromanization,thoselearningthelanguagemayfeelfrustratedthatmostnativeCantonesespeakers,regardlessoftheirlevelofeducation,areunfamiliarwithanyromanizationsystem.BecauseCantoneseisprimarilyaspokenlanguageanddoesnotcarryitsownwritingsystem(writtenCantonese,despitehavingsomeChinesecharactersuniquetoit,primarilyfollowsmodernstandardChinese,whichiscloselytiedtoMandarin),itisnottaughtinschools.[citationneeded]Asaresult,localsdonotlearnanyofthesesystems.IncontrastwithMandarin-speakingareasofChina,CantoneseromanizationsystemsareexcludedintheeducationsystemsofbothHongKongandtheGuangdongprovince.Inpractice,HongKongfollowsaloose,unnamedromanizationschemeusedbytheGovernmentofHongKong. GoogleCantoneseinputusesYale,JyutpingorCantonesePinyin,Yalebeingthefirststandard.[78][79] Comparison[edit] Differencesbetweenthethreemainstandardsarehighlightedinbold.NotethatJyutpingandCantonesePinyinrecognizecertainsoundsusedinafewcolloquialwords(suchas/tɛːu˨/掉,/lɛːm˧˥/舐,and/kɛːp˨/夾)buthavenotbeenofficiallyrecognizedinothersystemssuchasYale.[80][81] Initials[edit] Romanizationsystem Initialconsonant Labial Dental/Alveolar Velar Glottal Sibilant Labial–velar Approximant Yale b p m f d t n l g k ng h j ch s gw kw y w CantonesePinyin b p m f d t n l g k ng h dz ts s gw kw j w Jyutping b p m f d t n l g k ng h z c s gw kw j w IPA p pʰ m f t tʰ n l k kʰ ŋ h ts tsʰ s kʷ kʷʰ j w Finals[edit] Romanizationsystem Mainvowel /aː/ /ɐ/ /ɛː/,/e/ /iː/,/ɪ/ Yale a aai aau aam aan aang aap aat aak a[note1] ai au am an ang ap at ak e ei eng ek i iu im in ing ip it ik CantonesePinyin aa aai aau aam aan aang aap aat aak aa[note1] ai au am an ang ap at ak e ei eu em eng ep ek i iu im in ing ip it ik Jyutping aa aai aau aam aan aang aap aat aak a[note1] ai au am an ang ap at ak e ei eu em eng ep ek i iu im in ing ip it ik IPA aː aːi aːu aːm aːn aːŋ aːp aːt aːk ɐ[note1] ɐi ɐu ɐm ɐn ɐŋ ɐp ɐt ɐk ɛː ei ɛːu ɛːm ɛːŋ ɛːp ɛːk iː iːu iːm iːn ɪŋ iːp iːt ɪk Romanizationsystem Mainvowel Syllabicconsonant /ɔː/,/o/ /uː/,/ʊ/ /œː/ /ɵ/ /yː/ Yale o oi ou on ong ot ok u ui un ung ut uk eu eung euk eui eun eut yu yun yut m ng CantonesePinyin o oi ou on ong ot ok u ui un ung ut uk oe oeng oek oey oen oet y yn yt m ng Jyutping o oi ou on ong ot ok u ui un ung ut uk oe oeng oet oek eoi eon eot yu yun yut m ng IPA ɔː ɔːi ou ɔːn ɔːŋ ɔːt ɔːk uː uːi uːn ʊŋ uːt ʊk œː œːŋ œːt œːk ɵy ɵn ɵt yː yːn yːt m̩ ŋ̩ ^abcdJyutpingrecognizesthedistinctionbetweenfinal"shorta"/ɐ/and"longa"/aː/.The"shorta"canoccurinelidedsyllablessuchasthe十in四十四(sei3-a6-sei3),whichtheothersystemswouldtranscribewithsamespellingasthe"longa".[80] Tones[edit] Romanizationsystem Tone Dark(陰) Light(陽) Checked(入聲) Yale ā,à á a àh áh āh āk ak ahk CantonesePinyin 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Jyutping 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 3 6 ChaoToneContour 55,53 35 33 21,11 24,13 22 5 3 2 IPAToneLetters[82] ˥,˥˧ ˧˥ ˧ ˨˩,˩ ˨˦,˩˧ ˨ ˥ ˧ ˨ Seealso[edit] Chinaportal HongKongportal Languageportal Cantonesegrammar Cantoneseprofanity Cantoneseslang LanguagesofChina ListofEnglishwordsofCantoneseorigin ListofvarietiesofChinese ProtectionoftheVarietiesofChinese References[edit] Citations[edit] ^CantoneseatEthnologue(23rded.,2020) ^Matthews&Yip(1994),p. 5. ^Snow,DonaldB.(2004).CantoneseasWrittenLanguage:TheGrowthofaWrittenChineseVernacular.HongKongUniversityPress.p. 48.ISBN 9789622097094.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2016-04-24.Retrieved2015-11-09. ^Ramsey(1987),p. [page needed]. ^Ethnologue.[fullcitationneeded]sfnperror:notarget:CITEREFEthnologue(help) ^TheHongKongObservatoryisoneoftheexamplesoftheHongKongGovernmentofficiallyadoptingthename"廣東話",see"AudioWebPage".HongKongObservatory.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2018-01-01.Retrieved2021-05-08. 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Workscited[edit] Bauer,RobertS.;Benedict,PaulK.(1997).ModernCantonesePhonology.WalterdeGruyter.ISBN 978-3-11-014893-0. Coblin,W.South(2000)."ABriefHistoryofMandarin".JournaloftheAmericanOrientalSociety.120(4):537–552.doi:10.2307/606615.JSTOR 606615. Li,Qingxin(2006).MaritimeSilkRoad.trans.WilliamW.Wang.ChinaIntercontinentalPress.ISBN 978-7-5085-0932-7. Matthews,Stephen;Yip,Virginia(1994).Cantonese:AComprehensiveGrammar.London:Routledge.ISBN 9780203420843. Matthews,Stephen;Yip,Virginia(2011).Cantonese:AComprehensiveGrammar(2nd ed.). Ramsey,S.Robert(1987).TheLanguagesofChina.Princeton,NewJersey:PrincetonUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-691-01468-5. Yue-Hashimoto,AnneOi-Kan(1972).StudiesinYueDialects1:PhonologyofCantonese.CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-521-08442-0. 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Externallinks[edit] CantoneseeditionofWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia CantoneseatWikipedia'ssisterprojects DefinitionsfromWiktionaryMediafromCommonsTextsfromWikisourceTextbooksfromWikibooksTravelguidesfromWikivoyageDatafromWikidata "Multi-functionChineseCharacterDatabase"漢語多功能字庫(inChinese).TheChineseUniversityofHongKong. HongKongGovernmentsiteontheHKSupplementaryCharacterSet(HKSCS) CantoneseTools 粵語/廣東話參考資料YueReferencesbywordshk–GitHubPages.GitHub. ArticlesrelatedtoCantonese vteSino-TibetanbranchesWesternHimalayas(Himachal,Uttarakhand,Nepal,Sikkim) WestHimalayish Tamangic Newaric Newar Baram–Thangmi Kiranti Dhimalish Dhimal Toto Lhokpu Lepcha GreaterMagaric Magaric Magar Kham Chepangic Chepang Bhujel Raji–Raute Dura Tandrange EasternHimalayas(Tibet,Bhutan,Arunachal) Bodish Tibetic EastBodish Tshangla Basum Nam? 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