Geography - Wikipedia

Geography is a field of science devoted to the study of the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of the Earth. The first person to use the word ... Geography FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch StudyoflandsandinhabitantsoftheEarth Thisarticleisaboutthescienceofthesurfacesofplanetarybodies.Forthescienceofplanetarymaterial,seeGeology.Forotheruses,seeGeography(disambiguation)andGeo. Thisarticleneedsadditionalcitationsforverification.Pleasehelpimprovethisarticlebyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.Findsources: "Geography" – news ·newspapers ·books ·scholar ·JSTOR(February2018)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) PartofaseriesonGeography Portal Historyofgeography Graeco-Roman Chinese Islamic AgeofDiscovery Historyofcartography Environmentaldeterminism Regionalgeography Quantitativerevolution Criticalgeography HumangeographyFields Cultural Development Economic Food Health Historical Political Population Urban TheoreticalApproaches Behavioral Critical Feminist Marxist Non-representationaltheory Modernism Structuralism Semiotics Postmodernism Post-structuralism Deconstruction Methods Ethnography Participantobservation Qualitativemethods Statisticalsurvey GIS PhysicalgeographyFields Astronomy Biogeography Climatology/Paleoclimatology Coastalgeography Earthscience Geology Geomorphology Glaciology Hydrology/Hydrography Landscapeecology Limnology Oceanography Palaeogeography Pedology Quaternaryscience Methodsandtechniques Cartography GeographicInformationSystems(GIS) Geostatistics GlobalPositioningSystem(GPS) Remotesensing Spatialanalysis IntegratedgeographyFields Environmentalgeography Environmentalsocialscience Environmentalscience Environmentalstudies Landscapearchitecture Landscapeecology Timegeography AppliedgeographyFields Biogeography Phytogeography Zoogeography Geobiology Geochemistry Geoeconomics Geohistory Geoinformatics Geomathematics Geophysics Societies Index Geographersvte PhysicalmapofEarth PoliticalmapofEarth Geography(fromGreek:γεωγραφία,geographia,literally"earthdescription")isafieldofsciencedevotedtothestudyofthelands,features,inhabitants,andphenomenaoftheEarth.ThefirstpersontousethewordγεωγραφίαwasEratosthenes(276–194BC).Geographyisanall-encompassingdisciplinethatseeksanunderstandingofEarthanditshumanandnaturalcomplexities—notmerelywhereobjectsare,butalsohowtheyhavechangedandcometobe.WhilegeographyisspecifictoEarth,manyconceptscanbeappliedmorebroadlytoothercelestialbodiesinthefieldofplanetaryscience. Geographyisoftendefinedintermsoftwobranches:humangeographyandphysicalgeography.Humangeographyisconcernedwiththestudyofpeopleandtheircommunities,cultures,economies,andinteractionswiththeenvironmentbystudyingtheirrelationswithandacrossspaceandplace.Physicalgeographyisconcernedwiththestudyofprocessesandpatternsinthenaturalenvironmentliketheatmosphere,hydrosphere,biosphere,andgeosphere.Bothbranchesmakeuseofsimilargeographicphilosophies,concepts,andtoolsandoftenhavesignificantoverlap.Onesuchconcept,thefirstlawofgeography,proposedbyWaldoTobler,is"everythingisrelatedtoeverythingelse,butnearthingsaremorerelatedthandistantthings."[1][2] Thefourhistoricaltraditionsingeographicalresearcharespatialanalysesofthenaturalandthehumanphenomena,areastudiesofplacesandregions,studiesofhuman-landrelationships,andtheEarthsciences.Geographyhasbeencalled"theworlddiscipline"and"thebridgebetweenthehumanandthephysicalsciences". Contents 1Introduction 2Branches 2.1Physical 2.2Human 2.3Integrated 2.4Geomatics 2.5Regional 2.6Relatedfields 3Techniques 3.1Cartography 3.2Geographicinformationsystems 3.3Remotesensing 3.4Quantitativemethods 3.5Qualitativemethods 4History 5Notablegeographers 6Institutionsandsocieties 7Publications 8Seealso 9Notes 10References 11Externallinks Introduction GeographyisasystematicstudyoftheEarth,itsfeatures,andphenomenathattakeplaceonit.Forsomethingtofallintothedomainofgeography,itgenerallyneedssomesortofspatialcomponentthatcanbeplacedonamap,suchascoordinates,placenames,oraddresses.Thishasledtogeographybeingassociatedwithcartographyandplacenames.Althoughmanygeographersaretrainedintoponymyandcartology,thisisnottheirmainpreoccupation.GeographersstudytheEarth'sspatialandtemporaldistributionofphenomena,processes,andfeaturesaswellastheinteractionofhumansandtheirenvironment.[3]Becausespaceandplaceaffectavarietyoftopics,suchaseconomics,health,climate,plants,andanimals,geographyishighlyinterdisciplinary.Theinterdisciplinarynatureofthegeographicalapproachdependsonanattentivenesstotherelationshipbetweenphysicalandhumanphenomenaandtheirspatialpatterns.[4]GeographyisspecifictotheplanetEarth,andothercelestialbodiesarespecified,suchas"geographyofMars,"orgivenanothername,suchasareographyinthecaseofMars. Namesofplaces...arenotgeography...Toknowbyheartawholegazetteerfullofthemwouldnot,initself,constituteanyoneageographer.Geographyhashigheraimsthanthis:itseekstoclassifyphenomena(alikeofthenaturalandofthepoliticalworld,insofarasittreatsofthelatter),tocompare,togeneralize,toascendfromeffectstocauses,and,indoingso,totraceoutthelawsofnatureandtomarktheirinfluencesuponman.Thisis'adescriptionoftheworld'—thatisGeography.InawordGeographyisaScience—athingnotofmerenamesbutofargumentandreason,ofcauseandeffect.[5]— WilliamHughes,1863 Justasallphenomenaexistintimeandthushaveahistory,theyalsoexistinspaceandhaveageography.[6]— UnitedStatesNationalResearchCouncil,1997 Geographyasadisciplinecanbesplitbroadlyintotwomainsubsidiaryfields:humangeographyandphysicalgeography.[7]Theformerlargelyfocusesonthebuiltenvironmentandhowhumanscreate,view,manage,andinfluencespace.[7]Thelatterexaminesthenaturalenvironment,andhoworganisms,climate,soil,water,andlandformsproduceandinteract.[8]Thedifferencebetweentheseapproachesledtoathirdfield,environmentalgeography,whichcombinesphysicalandhumangeographyandconcernstheinteractionsbetweentheenvironmentandhumans.[3]Increasingly,thetoolsandtechniquesusedbygeographers,suchasremotesensing,cartography,andgeographicinformationsystemsarebeingconsideredtheirownseparatefield.Thisproposedthirdfieldmaybereferredtoasgeomatics,technicalgeography,orgeographicinformationscience.[9] Branches Physical Mainarticle:Physicalgeography Physicalgeography(orphysiography)focusesongeographyasanEarthscience.Itaimstounderstandthephysicalproblemsandtheissuesoflithosphere,hydrosphere,atmosphere,pedosphere,andglobalfloraandfaunapatterns(biosphere).Physicalgeographyisthestudyofearth'sseasons,climate,atmosphere,soil,streams,landforms,andoceans.[10] Physicalgeographycanbedividedintomanybroadcategories,including: Biogeography Climatology&meteorology Coastalgeography Environmentalmanagement Geodesy Geomorphology Glaciology Hydrology&hydrography Landscapeecology Oceanography Palaeogeography Pedology Quaternaryscience Human Mainarticle:Humangeography Humangeography(oranthropogeography)isabranchofgeographythatfocusesonthestudyofpatternsandprocessesthatshapethehumansociety.Itencompassesthehuman,political,cultural,social,andeconomicaspects. Humangeographycanbedividedintomanybroadcategories,suchas: Culturalgeography Developmentgeography Economicgeography Healthgeography Historical&Timegeog. Politicalgeog.&Geopolitics Pop.geog.orDemography Religiongeography Socialgeography Transportationgeography Tourismgeography Urbangeography Variousapproachestothestudyofhumangeographyhavealsoarisenthroughtimeandinclude: Behavioralgeography Culturetheory Feministgeography Geosophy Integrated Mainarticle:Integratedgeography Integratedgeographyisconcernedwiththedescriptionofthespatialinteractionsbetweenhumansandthenaturalworld.[11]Itrequiresanunderstandingofthetraditionalaspectsofphysicalandhumangeography,likethewaysthathumansocietiesconceptualizetheenvironment.Integratedgeographyhasemergedasabridgebetweenhumanandphysicalgeography,asaresultoftheincreasingspecialisationofthetwosub-fields.Sincethechangingofthehumanrelationshipwiththeenvironmentasaresultofglobalizationandtechnologicalchange,anewapproachwasneededtounderstandthechanginganddynamicrelationship.Examplesofareasofresearchinenvironmentalgeographyinclude:emergencymanagement,environmentalmanagement,sustainability,andpoliticalecology. Geomatics Mainarticle:Geomatics DigitalElevationModel(DEM) Geomaticsisconcernedwiththeapplicationofcomputerstothetraditionalspatialtechniquesusedincartographyandtopography.Similartothetermsgeographicinformationscienceandtechnicalgeography,geomaticsemergedfromthequantitativerevolutioningeographyinthemid-1950s.Today,geomaticsmethodsincludespatialanalysis,geographicinformationsystems(GIS),remotesensing,andglobalpositioningsystems(GPS).Geomaticshasledtoarevitalizationofsomegeographydepartments,especiallyinNorthernAmericawherethesubjecthadadecliningstatusduringthe1950s.Becauseofthis,manyhaveproposeditmaybeathirdbranchingeography,inadditiontophysicalandhuman. Regional Mainarticle:Regionalgeography Abranchwhichisconcernedwiththedescriptionoftheuniquecharacteristicsoftheearth'ssurface,resultingineachareafromthecombinationofitscompletenaturalorelements,asofphysicalandhumanenvironment.[12]Themainaimistounderstand,ordefinetheuniqueness,orcharacterofaparticularregionthatconsistsofnaturalaswellashumanelements.Attentionispaidalsotoregionalization,whichcoversthepropertechniquesofspacedelimitationintoregions. Relatedfields Interplanetarysciences:WhilethedisciplineofgeographyisnormallyconcernedwiththeEarth,thetermcanalsobeinformallyusedtodescribethestudyofotherworlds,suchastheplanetsoftheSolarSystemandevenbeyond.ThestudyofsystemslargerthantheEarthitselfusuallyformspartofAstronomyorCosmology.Thestudyofotherplanetsisusuallycalledplanetaryscience.Alternativetermssuchasareography(geographyofMars)havebeenemployedtodescribethestudyofothercelestialobjects. Regionalscience:Inthe1950s,theregionalsciencemovementledbyWalterIsardarosetoprovideamorequantitativeandanalyticalbasetogeographicalquestions,incontrasttothedescriptivetendenciesoftraditionalgeographyprograms.Regionalsciencecomprisesthebodyofknowledgeinwhichthespatialdimensionplaysafundamentalrole,suchasregionaleconomics,resourcemanagement,locationtheory,urbanandregionalplanning,transportandcommunication,humangeography,populationdistribution,landscapeecology,andenvironmentalquality. Urbanplanning,regionalplanning,andspatialplanning:Usethescienceofgeographytoassistindetermininghowtodevelop(ornotdevelop)thelandtomeetparticularcriteria,suchassafety,beauty,economicopportunities,thepreservationofthebuiltornaturalheritage,andsoon.Theplanningoftowns,cities,andruralareasmaybeseenasappliedgeography. Techniques Thissectiondoesnotciteanysources.Pleasehelpimprovethissectionbyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.(January2021)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Allgeographicresearchandanalysisstartwithaskingthequestion"where,"followedby"whythere."GeographersstartwiththefundamentalassumptionsetforthinTobler'sfirstlawofgeography,that"everythingisrelatedtoeverythingelse,butnearthingsaremorerelatedthandistantthings."[13][14] Asspatialinterrelationshipsarekeytothissynopticscience,mapsareakeytool.Classicalcartographyhasbeenjoinedbyamoremodernapproachtogeographicalanalysis,computer-basedgeographicinformationsystems(GIS). Intheirstudy,geographersusefourinterrelatedapproaches: Analytical –Askswhywefindfeaturesandpopulationsinaspecificgeographicarea. Descriptive –Simplyspecifiesthelocationsoffeaturesandpopulations. Regional –Examinessystematicrelationshipsbetweencategoriesforaspecificregionorlocationontheplanet. Systematic –Groupsgeographicalknowledgeintocategoriesthatcanbeexploredglobally. Cartography JamesCook's1770chartofNewZealand Mainarticle:Cartography Cartographyistheart,science,andtechnologyofmakingmaps.CartographersstudytherepresentationoftheEarth'ssurfacewithabstractsymbols(mapmaking).Althoughothersubdisciplinesofgeographyrelyonmapsforpresentingtheiranalyses,theactualmakingofmapsisabstractenoughtoberegardedseparately.Cartographyhasgrownfromacollectionofdraftingtechniquesintoanactualscience. CartographersmustlearncognitivepsychologyandergonomicstounderstandwhichsymbolsconveyinformationabouttheEarthmosteffectively,andbehaviouralpsychologytoinducethereadersoftheirmapstoactontheinformation.TheymustlearngeodesyandfairlyadvancedmathematicstounderstandhowtheshapeoftheEarthaffectsthedistortionofmapsymbolsprojectedontoaflatsurfaceforviewing.Itcanbesaid,withoutmuchcontroversy,thatcartographyistheseedfromwhichthelargerfieldofgeographygrew.Mostgeographerswillciteachildhoodfascinationwithmapsasanearlysigntheywouldendupinthefield. Geographicinformationsystems Mainarticle:Geographicinformationsystem Geographicinformationsystems(GIS)dealwiththestorageofinformationabouttheEarthforautomaticretrievalbyacomputer,inanaccuratemannerappropriatetotheinformation'spurpose.Inadditiontoalloftheothersubdisciplinesofgeography,GISspecialistsmustunderstandcomputerscienceanddatabasesystems.GIShasrevolutionizedthefieldofcartography:nearlyallmapmakingisnowdonewiththeassistanceofsomeformofGISsoftware.ThescienceofusingGISsoftwareandGIStechniquestorepresent,analyse,andpredictthespatialrelationshipsiscalledgeographicinformationscience(GISc). Remotesensing Mainarticle:Remotesensing Remotesensingistheart,science,andtechnologyofobtaininginformationaboutEarth'sfeaturesfrommeasurementsmadeatadistance.Remotelysenseddatacomesinmanyforms,suchassatelliteimagery,aerialphotography,anddataobtainedfromhand-heldsensors.GeographersincreasinglyuseremotelysenseddatatoobtaininformationabouttheEarth'slandsurface,ocean,andatmosphere,becauseit:(a)suppliesobjectiveinformationatavarietyofspatialscales(localtoglobal),(b)providesasynopticviewoftheareaofinterest,(c)allowsaccesstodistantandinaccessiblesites,(d)providesspectralinformationoutsidethevisibleportionoftheelectromagneticspectrum,and(e)facilitatesstudiesofhowfeatures/areaschangeovertime.Remotelysenseddatamaybeanalysedeitherindependentlyof,orinconjunctionwithotherdigitaldatalayers(e.g.,inageographicinformationsystem). Quantitativemethods Mainarticle:Geostatistics Geostatisticsdealwithquantitativedataanalysis,specificallytheapplicationofstatisticalmethodologytotheexplorationofgeographicphenomena.Geostatisticsisusedextensivelyinavarietyoffields,includinghydrology,geology,petroleumexploration,weatheranalysis,urbanplanning,logistics,andepidemiology.Themathematicalbasisforgeostatisticsderivesfromclusteranalysis,lineardiscriminantanalysisandnon-parametricstatisticaltests,andavarietyofothersubjects.Applicationsofgeostatisticsrelyheavilyongeographicinformationsystems,particularlyfortheinterpolation(estimate)ofunmeasuredpoints.Geographersaremakingnotablecontributionstothemethodofquantitativetechniques. Qualitativemethods Mainarticle:Ethnography Geographicqualitativemethods,orethnographicalresearchtechniques,areusedbyhumangeographers.Inculturalgeographythereisatraditionofemployingqualitativeresearchtechniques,alsousedinanthropologyandsociology.Participantobservationandin-depthinterviewsprovidehumangeographerswithqualitativedata. History Mainarticle:Historyofgeography TheoldestknownworldmapsdatebacktoancientBabylonfromthe9thcenturyBC.[15]ThebestknownBabylonianworldmap,however,istheImagoMundiof600BC.[16]ThemapasreconstructedbyEckhardUngershowsBabylonontheEuphrates,surroundedbyacircularlandmassshowingAssyria,Urartu,[17]andseveralcities,inturnsurroundedbya"bitterriver"(Oceanus),withsevenislandsarrangedarounditsoastoformaseven-pointedstar.Theaccompanyingtextmentionssevenouterregionsbeyondtheencirclingocean.Thedescriptionsoffiveofthemhavesurvived.[18]IncontrasttotheImagoMundi,anearlierBabylonianworldmapdatingbacktothe9thcenturyBCdepictedBabylonasbeingfurthernorthfromthecenteroftheworld,thoughitisnotcertainwhatthatcenterwassupposedtorepresent.[15] TheideasofAnaximander(c.610–545BC):consideredbylaterGreekwriterstobethetruefounderofgeography,cometousthroughfragmentsquotedbyhissuccessors.[19]Anaximanderiscreditedwiththeinventionofthegnomon,thesimple,yetefficientGreekinstrumentthatallowedtheearlymeasurementoflatitude.[19]Thalesisalsocreditedwiththepredictionofeclipses.Thefoundationsofgeographycanbetracedtotheancientcultures,suchastheancient,medieval,andearlymodernChinese.TheGreeks,whowerethefirsttoexploregeographyasbothartandscience,achievedthisthroughCartography,Philosophy,andLiterature,orthroughMathematics.ThereissomedebateaboutwhowasthefirstpersontoassertthattheEarthissphericalinshape,withthecreditgoingeithertoParmenidesorPythagoras.AnaxagoraswasabletodemonstratethattheprofileoftheEarthwascircularbyexplainingeclipses.However,hestillbelievedthattheEarthwasaflatdisk,asdidmanyofhiscontemporaries.OneofthefirstestimatesoftheradiusoftheEarthwasmadebyEratosthenes.[20] ThefirstrigoroussystemoflatitudeandlongitudelinesiscreditedtoHipparchus.HeemployedasexagesimalsystemthatwasderivedfromBabylonianmathematics.Themeridiansweresub-dividedinto360°,witheachdegreefurthersubdividedinto60(minutes).TomeasurethelongitudeatdifferentlocationsonEarth,hesuggestedusingeclipsestodeterminetherelativedifferenceintime.[21]TheextensivemappingbytheRomansastheyexplorednewlandswouldlaterprovideahighlevelofinformationforPtolemytoconstructdetailedatlases.HeextendedtheworkofHipparchus,usingagridsystemonhismapsandadoptingalengthof56.5milesforadegree.[22] Fromthe3rdcenturyonwards,ChinesemethodsofgeographicalstudyandwritingofgeographicalliteraturebecamemuchmorecomprehensivethanwhatwasfoundinEuropeatthetime(untilthe13thcentury).[23]ChinesegeographerssuchasLiuAn,PeiXiu,JiaDan,ShenKuo,FanChengda,ZhouDaguan,andXuXiakewroteimportanttreatises,yetbythe17thcenturyadvancedideasandmethodsofWestern-stylegeographywereadoptedinChina. ThePtolemyworldmap,reconstitutedfromPtolemy'sGeographia,writtenc. 150 DuringtheMiddleAges,thefalloftheRomanempireledtoashiftintheevolutionofgeographyfromEuropetotheIslamicworld.[23]MuslimgeographerssuchasMuhammadal-Idrisiproduceddetailedworldmaps(suchasTabulaRogeriana),whileothergeographerssuchasYaqutal-Hamawi,AbuRayhanBiruni,IbnBattuta,andIbnKhaldunprovideddetailedaccountsoftheirjourneysandthegeographyoftheregionstheyvisited.Turkishgeographer,Mahmudal-Kashgaridrewaworldmaponalinguisticbasis,andlatersodidPiriReis(PiriReismap).Further,IslamicscholarstranslatedandinterpretedtheearlierworksoftheRomansandtheGreeksandestablishedtheHouseofWisdominBaghdadforthispurpose.[24]AbūZaydal-Balkhī,originallyfromBalkh,foundedthe"Balkhīschool"ofterrestrialmappinginBaghdad.[25]Suhrāb,alatetenthcenturyMuslimgeographeraccompaniedabookofgeographicalcoordinates,withinstructionsformakingarectangularworldmapwithequirectangularprojectionorcylindricalequidistantprojection.[26] AbuRayhanBiruni(976–1048)firstdescribedapolarequi-azimuthalequidistantprojectionofthecelestialsphere.[27]Hewasregardedasthemostskilledwhenitcametomappingcitiesandmeasuringthedistancesbetweenthem,whichhedidformanycitiesintheMiddleEastandtheIndiansubcontinent.Heoftencombinedastronomicalreadingsandmathematicalequations,inordertodevelopmethodsofpin-pointinglocationsbyrecordingdegreesoflatitudeandlongitude.Healsodevelopedsimilartechniqueswhenitcametomeasuringtheheightsofmountains,depthsofthevalleys,andexpanseofthehorizon.HealsodiscussedhumangeographyandtheplanetaryhabitabilityoftheEarth.HealsocalculatedthelatitudeofKath,Khwarezm,usingthemaximumaltitudeoftheSun,andsolvedacomplexgeodesicequationinordertoaccuratelycomputetheEarth'scircumference,whichwasclosetomodernvaluesoftheEarth'scircumference.[28]Hisestimateof6,339.9 kmfortheEarthradiuswasonly16.8 kmlessthanthemodernvalueof6,356.7 km.Incontrasttohispredecessors,whomeasuredtheEarth'scircumferencebysightingtheSunsimultaneouslyfromtwodifferentlocations,al-Birunidevelopedanewmethodofusingtrigonometriccalculations,basedontheanglebetweenaplainandmountaintop,whichyieldedmoreaccuratemeasurementsoftheEarth'scircumference,andmadeitpossibleforittobemeasuredbyasinglepersonfromasinglelocation.[29] SelfportraitofAlexandervonHumboldt,oneoftheearlypioneersofgeographyasanacademicsubjectinmodernsense TheEuropeanAgeofDiscoveryduringthe16thandthe17thcenturies,wheremanynewlandswerediscoveredandaccountsbyEuropeanexplorerssuchasChristopherColumbus,MarcoPolo,andJamesCookrevivedadesireforbothaccurategeographicdetail,andmoresolidtheoreticalfoundationsinEurope.Theproblemfacingbothexplorersandgeographerswasfindingthelatitudeandlongitudeofageographiclocation.Theproblemoflatitudewassolvedlongagobutthatoflongituderemained;agreeingonwhatzeromeridianshouldbewasonlypartoftheproblem.ItwaslefttoJohnHarrisontosolveitbyinventingthechronometerH-4in1760,andlaterin1884fortheInternationalMeridianConferencetoadoptbyconventiontheGreenwichmeridianaszeromeridian.[30] The18thandthe19thcenturieswerethetimeswhengeographybecamerecognizedasadiscreteacademicdiscipline,andbecamepartofatypicaluniversitycurriculuminEurope(especiallyParisandBerlin).Thedevelopmentofmanygeographicsocietiesalsooccurredduringthe19thcentury,withthefoundationsoftheSociétédeGéographiein1821,[31]theRoyalGeographicalSocietyin1830,[32]RussianGeographicalSocietyin1845,[33]AmericanGeographicalSocietyin1851,[34]andtheNationalGeographicSocietyin1888.[35]TheinfluenceofImmanuelKant,AlexandervonHumboldt,CarlRitter,andPaulVidaldelaBlachecanbeseenasamajorturningpointingeographyfromaphilosophytoanacademicsubject. Overthepasttwocenturies,theadvancementsintechnologywithcomputershaveledtothedevelopmentofgeomaticsandnewpracticessuchasparticipantobservationandgeostatisticsbeingincorporatedintogeography'sportfoliooftools.IntheWestduringthe20thcentury,thedisciplineofgeographywentthroughfourmajorphases:environmentaldeterminism,regionalgeography,thequantitativerevolution,andcriticalgeography.Thestronginterdisciplinarylinksbetweengeographyandthesciencesofgeologyandbotany,aswellaseconomics,sociology,anddemographics,havealsogrowngreatly,especiallyasaresultofearthsystemsciencethatseekstounderstandtheworldinaholisticview.Newconceptsandphilosophieshaveemergedfromtherapidadvancementofcomputers,quantitativemethods,andinterdisciplinaryapproaches.In1970,WaldoToblerproposedthefirstlawofgeography,"everythingisrelatedtoeverythingelse,butnearthingsaremorerelatedthandistantthings."[36][37]Thislawsummarizesthefirstassumptiongeographersmakeabouttheworld. Notablegeographers Mainarticles:ListofgeographersandListofGraeco-Romangeographers GerardusMercator AlexandervonHumboldt(1769–1859) –publishedCosmosandfounderofthesub-fieldbiogeography. ArnoldHenryGuyot(1807–1884) –notedthestructureofglaciersandadvancedunderstandinginglaciermotion,especiallyinfasticeflow. CarlO.Sauer(1889–1975) –culturalgeographer. CarlRitter(1779–1859) –occupiedthefirstchairofgeographyatBerlinUniversity. DavidHarvey(born1935) –Marxistgeographerandauthoroftheoriesonspatialandurbangeography,winneroftheVautrinLudPrize. DoreenMassey(1944–2016) –scholarinthespaceandplacesofglobalizationanditspluralities;winneroftheVautrinLudPrize. EdwardSoja(1940–2015) –workedonregionaldevelopment,planningandgovernanceandcoinedthetermsSynekismandPostmetropolis;winneroftheVautrinLudPrize. EllenChurchillSemple(1863–1932) –firstfemalepresidentoftheAssociationofAmericanGeographers. Eratosthenes(c.276–c.195/194BC) –calculatedthesizeoftheEarth. ErnestBurgess(1886–1966) –creatoroftheconcentriczonemodel. GerardusMercator(1512–1594) –cartographerwhoproducedthemercatorprojection JohnFranconWilliams(1854–1911)–authorofTheGeographyoftheOceans. KarlButzer(1934–2016) –German-Americangeographer,culturalecologistandenvironmentalarchaeologist. MichaelFrankGoodchild(born1944) –GISscholarandwinneroftheRGSfounder'smedalin2003. Muhammadal-Idrisi(Arabic:أبوعبداللهمحمدالإدريسي;Latin:Dreses)(1100–1165) –authorofNuzhatulMushtaq. NigelThrift(born1949) –originatorofnon-representationaltheory. PaulVidaldeLaBlache(1845–1918) –founderoftheFrenchschoolofgeopolitics,wrotetheprinciplesofhumangeography. Ptolemy(c.100–c.170) –compiledGreekandRomanknowledgeintothebookGeographia. RadhanathSikdar(1813–1870) –calculatedtheheightofMountEverest. RogerTomlinson(1933–2014) –theprimaryoriginatorofmoderngeographicinformationsystems. SirHalfordMackinder(1861–1947) –co-founderoftheLSE,GeographicalAssociation. Strabo(64/63BC –c.AD24) –wroteGeographica,oneofthefirstbooksoutliningthestudyofgeography. WaldoTobler(1930-2018) –coinedthefirstlawofgeography. WalterChristaller(1893–1969) –humangeographerandinventorofCentralplacetheory. WilliamMorrisDavis(1850–1934) –fatherofAmericangeographyanddeveloperofthecycleoferosion. Yi-FuTuan(born1930) –Chinese-AmericanscholarcreditedwithstartingHumanisticGeographyasadiscipline. Institutionsandsocieties AmericanAssociationofGeographers(AAG)[38] AmericanGeographicalSociety(US)[39] AntonMelikGeographicalInstitute(Slovenia) GammaThetaUpsilon(international) InstituteofGeographicalInformationSystems(Pakistan) InternationalGeographicalUnion(International) KarachiGeographicalSociety(Pakistan) NationalGeographicSociety(US)[40] RoyalCanadianGeographicalSociety(Canada) RoyalDanishGeographicalSociety(Denmark) RoyalGeographicalSociety(UK)[41] RussianGeographicalSociety(Russia) Publications AfricanGeographicalReview AnnalsoftheAmericanAssociationofGeographers Antipode GeographicalReview TheGeographicalBulletin TheGeographicalJournal TheProfessionalGeographer Seealso Areography(geographyofMars) Biogeography Cartography Climatology Culturalgeography Demography Developmentgeography Economicgeography Geodesy GeographicInformationScience GeographicInformationSystems Geographicalspace Geomatics Geomorphology Geovisualization Glaciology GlobalPositioningSystem Healthgeography HistoricalGeography Hydrology Landscapeecology Oceanography Palaeogeography Pedology PlanetaryScience Remotesensing Timegeography Transportationgeography Urbangeography Notes ^Tobler,Waldo(1970)."AComputerMovieSimulatingUrbanGrowthintheDetroitRegion"(PDF).EconomicGeography.46.Retrieved22July2022. ^Tobler,Waldo(2004)."OntheFirstLawofGeography:AReply".AnnalsoftheAssociationofAmericanGeographers.94(2):304–310.doi:10.1111/j.1467-8306.2004.09402009.x.Retrieved22July2022. ^abHayes-Bohanan2009. ^Hornby&Jones1991,p. 7. ^Hughes,William.(1863).TheStudyofGeography.LecturedeliveredatKing'sCollege,London,bySirMarcAlexander.QuotedinBaker,J.N.L(1963).TheHistoryofGeography.Oxford:BasilBlackwell.p. 66.ISBN 978-0-85328-022-4. ^"Chapter3:Geography'sPerspectives".RediscoveringGeography:NewRelevanceforScienceandSociety.Washington,DC:TheNationalAcademiesPress.1997.p. 28.doi:10.17226/4913.ISBN 978-0-309-05199-6.Archivedfromtheoriginalon7May2014.Retrieved6May2014. ^abHough&Izdebska2016,p. 502. ^Cotterill1997. ^Haidu,Ionel(2016)."WhatisTechnicalGeography"(PDF).GeographiaTechnica.11(1):1–5.doi:10.21163/GT_2016.111.01.Retrieved22July2022. ^Lockyer1900,pp. 207–8. ^Wang2017,pp. 1–4. ^Minshull2017,p. 29. ^ToblerW.,(1970)"AcomputermoviesimulatingurbangrowthintheDetroitregion".EconomicGeography,46(Supplement):234–240. ^Tobler,Waldo(2004)."OntheFirstLawofGeography:AReply".AnnalsoftheAssociationofAmericanGeographers.94(2):304–310.doi:10.1111/j.1467-8306.2004.09402009.x.Retrieved10March2022. ^abRaaflaub&Talbert2009,p. 147. ^Siebold1998. ^DelanoSmith1996,pp. 209–211. ^Finkel1995,p. 26–27. ^abKish1978,p. 11. ^Tassoul&Tassoul2004,p. 14. ^Smith1846,p. 46. ^Sullivan2000. ^abNeedham1959,p. 512. ^Nawwab,Hoye&Speers2018. ^Edson&Savage-Smith2007,pp. 61–63. ^Tibbetts1997,pp. 104–107. ^King1996,pp. 128–184. ^Aber2003. ^Goodman1992,p. 31. ^Aughton2009,p. 164. ^SociétédeGéographie2016. ^"AboutUs".rgs.org.RoyalGeographicalSociety.Archivedfromtheoriginalon18October2016.Retrieved10November2016. ^"РусскоеГеографическоеОбщество(основанов1845г.)"[RussianGeographicalSociety].rgo.ru(inRussian).RussianGeographicalSociety.Archivedfromtheoriginalon24May2012.Retrieved10November2016. ^"History".amergeog.org.TheAmericanGeographicalSociety.Archivedfromtheoriginalon17October2016.Retrieved10November2016. ^"NationalGeographicSociety".state.gov.U.S.DepartmentofState.Retrieved10November2016. ^Tobler,Waldo(1970)."AComputerMovieSimulatingUrbanGrowthintheDetroitRegion"(PDF).EconomicGeography.46.Retrieved22July2022. ^Tobler,Waldo(2004)."OntheFirstLawofGeography:AReply".AnnalsoftheAssociationofAmericanGeographers.94(2):304–310.doi:10.1111/j.1467-8306.2004.09402009.x.Retrieved22July2022. ^Freeman,T.W.;James,PrestonE.;Martin,GeoffreyJ.(July1980)."TheAssociationofAmericanGeographers:TheFirstSeventy-FiveYears1904-1979".TheGeographicalJournal.146(2):298.doi:10.2307/632894.ISSN 0016-7398.JSTOR 632894. ^"AGSHistory".26February2009.Archivedfromtheoriginalon26February2009.Retrieved11October2021. ^"NationalGeographicSociety".U.S.DepartmentofState.Retrieved11October2021. ^"RoyalGeographicalSociety-RoyalGeographicalSociety(withIBG)".www.rgs.org.Retrieved11October2021. References Aber,JamesSandusky(2003)."AbuRayhanal-Biruni".academic.emporia.edu.EmporiaStateUniversity.Archivedfromtheoriginalon11August2011.Retrieved10November2016. Aughton,Peter(2009).Voyagesthatchangedtheworld.PenguinGroup.ISBN 978-1-84724-004-0. Bonnett,Alastair(2008).WhatisGeography?.NewYork:SAGEPublishing.ISBN 978-1-84920-649-5. Bonnett,Alastair(March2003)."Geographyastheworlddiscipline:connectingpopularandacademicgeographicalimaginations".Area.35(1):55–63.doi:10.1111/1475-4762.00110.ISSN 0004-0894. Cotterill,PeterD.(1997)."Whatisgeography?".AAGCareerGuide:JobsinGeographyandrelatedGeographicalSciences.AmericanAssociationofGeographers.Archivedfromtheoriginalon6October2006.Retrieved9October2006. DelanoSmith,Catherine(1996)."ImagoMundi'sLogotheBabylonianMapoftheWorld".ImagoMundi.48:209–211.doi:10.1080/03085699608592846.JSTOR 1151277. Dorn,Harold(1991).TheGeographyofScience.JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-8018-4151-4. Edson,Evelyn;Savage-Smith,Emilie(2007)."MedievalViewsoftheCosmos".InternationalJournaloftheClassicalTradition.13:3(3):61–63.JSTOR 30222166. Finkel,Irving(1995).Ajointothemapoftheworld:Anotablediscovery.BritishMuseumMagazine.ISBN 978-0-7141-2073-7. Goodman,LennEvan(1992).Avicenna.GreatBritain:Routledge.ISBN 978-0-415-01929-3.ItwasBiruni,notAvicenna,whofoundawayforasingleman,atasinglemoment,tomeasuretheearth'scircumference,bytrigonometriccalculationsbasedonanglesmeasuredfromamountaintopandtheplainbeneathit–thusimprovingonEratosthenes'methodofsightingthesunsimultaneouslyfromtwodifferentsites,appliedintheninthcenturybyastronomersoftheKhalifal-Ma'mun. Hayes-Bohanan,James(29September2009)."WhatisEnvironmentalGeography,Anyway?".webhost.bridgew.edu.BridgewaterStateUniversity.Archivedfromtheoriginalon26October2006.Retrieved10November2016. Hornby,WilliamF.;Jones,Melvyn(29June1991).AnintroductiontoSettlementGeography.CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-521-28263-5.Archivedfromtheoriginalon25December2016. Hough,Carole;Izdebska,Daria(2016)."NamesandGeography".InGammeltoft,Peder(ed.).TheOxfordHandbookofNamesandNaming(First ed.).Oxford,UnitedKingdom:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-965643-1. Johnston,Ron(2000)."HumanGeography".InJohnston,Ron;Gregory,Derek;Pratt,Geraldine;et al.(eds.).TheDictionaryofHumanGeography.Oxford:Blackwell.pp. 353–360. King,DavidA.(1996).Rashed,Roshdi(ed.).AstronomyandIslamicsociety:Qibla,gnomicsandtimekeeping(PDF).EncyclopediaoftheHistoryofArabicScience.Vol. 1.ISBN 978-0-203-71184-2.Archived(PDF)fromtheoriginalon11November2016. Kish,George(1978).ASourceBookinGeography.HarvardUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-674-82270-2. Lockyer,Norman(1900)."PhysiographyandPhysicalGeography".Nature.63(1626):207–208.Bibcode:1900Natur..63..207R.doi:10.1038/063207a0.ISSN 0028-0836. Minshull,Roger(5July2017).RegionalGeography:TheoryandPractice.Routledge.ISBN 978-1-351-49408-3. Nawwab,IsmailI.;Hoye,PaulF.;Speers,PeterC.(5September2018)."IslamandIslamicHistoryandTheMiddleEast".islamicity.com.Archivedfromtheoriginalon17June2016.Retrieved10November2016. Needham,Joseph(1959).MathematicsandtheSciencesoftheHeavensandtheEarth.ScienceandCivilizationinChina.Vol. 3.Taipei:CavesBooks,Ltd.ISBN 978-0-521-05801-8.Archivedfromtheoriginalon25September2016. Pattison,WilliamD.(1990)."TheFourTraditionsofGeography"(PDF).JournalofGeography(published1964).September/October1990(5):202–206.doi:10.1080/00221349008979196.ISSN 0022-1341.Archived(PDF)fromtheoriginalon30November2016.Retrieved10November2016. Pidwirny,Dr.Michael;Jones,Scott(2009)."ElementsofGeography".physicalgeography.net(2nd ed.).Okanagan:UniversityofBritishColumbiaOkanagan.Archivedfromtheoriginalon1May2009.Retrieved10November2016. Raaflaub,KurtA.;Talbert,RichardJ.A.(2009).GeographyandEthnography:PerceptionsoftheWorldinPre-ModernSocieties.JohnWiley&Sons.ISBN 978-1-4051-9146-3. Roller,DuaneW.(24January2010).Eratosthenes'Geography.TranslatedbyRoller,DuaneW.Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-691-14267-8.Archivedfromtheoriginalon19November2015. Siebold,Jim(1998)."Babylonianclaytablet,600B.C."henry-davis.com.HenryDavisConsultingInc.Archivedfromtheoriginalon9November2016.Retrieved10November2016. Smith,SirWilliam(1846).DictionaryofGreekandRomanBiographyandMythology:Earinus-Nyx.Vol. 2nd.London:TaylorandWalton. SociétédeGéographie(2016)."SociétédeGéographie,Paris,France"[Whoarewe ?-SocietyofGeography].socgeo.com(inFrench).SociétédeGéographie.Archivedfromtheoriginalon6November2016.Retrieved10November2016. Sullivan,Dan(2000)."MapmakinganditsHistory".rutgers.edu.RutgersUniversity.Archivedfromtheoriginalon4March2016.Retrieved10November2016. Tassoul,Jean-Louis;Tassoul,Monique(2004).AConciseHistoryofSolarandStellarPhysics.London:PrincetonUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-691-11711-9. Tibbetts,GeraldR.(1997)."TheBeginningsofaCartographicTradition".InHarley,JohnBrian;Woodward,David(eds.).Thehistoryofcartography.Vol. 2.Chicago:Brill.ISBN 0-226-31633-5. Wang,Jiaoe(2017)."EconomicGeography:SpatialInteraction".InternationalEncyclopediaofGeography:People,theEarth,EnvironmentandTechnology.AmericanCancerSociety.pp. 1–4.doi:10.1002/9781118786352.wbieg0641.ISBN 978-1-118-78635-2. 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