Terrorism - Wikipedia

Terrorist acts frequently have a political purpose. ... Some official, governmental definitions of terrorism use the criterion of the illegitimacy or unlawfulness ... Terrorism FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Thisarticleneedstobeupdated.Pleasehelpupdatethisarticletoreflectrecenteventsornewlyavailableinformation.(August2021)Useofviolencetofurtherapoliticalorideologicalcause "Terrorist"redirectshere.Forotheruses,seeTerrorist(disambiguation). UnitedAirlinesFlight175hitstheSouthToweroftheWorldTradeCenterduringtheSeptember11attacksof2001inNewYorkCity. PartofaseriesonTerrorism Definitions History Incidents Byideology Anarchist Communist Green/Ecological Left-wing/Far-left Narcotics-driven Nationalist Right-wing/Far-right Religious Buddhist Christian(Mormon) Hindu Islamic(Salafi-Wahhabi) Jewish Sikh Special-interest /Single-issue Suffragette Anti-abortion Environmental Misogynist Relatedtopics Violentextremism Ethnicviolence Militiamovement Resistancemovement Structure Financing Fronting Radicalization(Online) Trainingcamp Deathsquad Clandestinecellsystem Leaderlessresistance Lonewolf MethodsTactics Agro-terrorism Aircrafthijacking (list) Animal-bornebombattacks Beheading Bioterrorism Carbombing (list) Cyberterrorism Dirtybomb Dryrun Explosive Hostage-taking Improvisedexplosivedevice(IED) Vehicle-ramming Spreeshooting Individualterror Insurgency Kidnapping Letterbomb Lonewolf Massshooting Nuclear Paperterrorism Piracy Propagandaofthedeed Proxybomb Schoolshooting Stabbing Suicideattack (list) Rocketsandmortars Terroristgroups Designatedterroristgroups Charitiesaccusedoftiestoterrorism Adherents Violentnon-stateactors Stateterrorism Kazakhstan SovietUnion SriLanka UnitedStates Uzbekistan State-sponsoredterrorism Iran Israel Kuwait Pakistan Qatar Russia(SovietUnion) SaudiArabia Syria UnitedStates Responsetoterrorism Counter-terrorism Internationalconventions Anti-terrorismlegislation Terrorisminsurance vte PartofaseriesonWar History Prehistoric Ancient Post-classical Earlymodern Latemodern industrial fourth-gen Battlespace Aerospace Air Airborne Space Land Cold-region Desert Jungle Mountain Urban Sea Amphibious Blue Brown Green Surface Underwater Subterranean Tunnel Cyber Information Weapons Armor Artillery Barrage Biological Camouflage Cavalry Chemical Class Combinedarms Conventional Cyber Denial Disinformation Drone Electronic Infantry Lawfare Loitering Music Nuclear Psychological Unconventional TacticsListofmilitarytactics Aerial Battle Cavalry Charge Counterattack Counterinsurgency Defeatindetail Foxhole Envelopment Guerrilla Morale Rapiddominance Siege Swarming Tacticalobjective Targetsaturation Trench Withdrawal Operational Bandenbekämpfung Blitzkrieg Expeditionary Deepoperation Maneuver Operationalmanoeuvregroup StrategyListofmilitarystrategiesandconcepts Attrition Counter-offensive Culminating Defenceindepth Fabian Mosaic Deception Defensive Depth Goal Naval Offensive Scorchedearth Grandstrategy Containment Economic Limited Philosophy Political Religious Strategic Technology Theater Totalwar Administrative Branch Policy Staff Training Service Sociology Organization Chainofcommand Commandandcontrol Doctrine Engineers Intelligence Ranks Technologyandequipment Personnel Militaryrecruitment Conscription Recruittraining Militaryspecialism Womeninthemilitary Childreninthemilitary Transgenderpeopleandmilitaryservice Sexualharassmentinthemilitary Conscientiousobjector Counter-recruitment Logistics Military–industrialcomplex Armsindustry Materiel Supply-chainmanagement Science Powerprojection LossofStrengthGradient Law Court-martial Justice Perfidy Martiallaw Warcrime Theory Airsupremacy Full-spectrumdominance Justwartheory Overmatch Related Anti-warmovement Asymmetricwarfare Broken-backedwartheory Coldwar Demilitarisation Deterrencetheory Horsesinwarfare Irregularwarfare Mercenary Militarycampaign Militaryoperation Network-centricwarfare Operationsresearch Perpetualwar Principlesofwar Proxywar Securitydilemma Tripwireforce Warfilm Wargame Warnovel Warresister Wartimesexualviolence Womeninwar Worldwar Colonialwar Endemicwarfare Lanchester'slaws Lists Battles Militaryoccupations Militarytactics Operations Sieges Warcrimes Wars Weapons Writers vte Terrorism,initsbroadestsense,istheuseofintentionalviolencetoachievepoliticalaims.Thetermisusedinthisregardprimarilytorefertoviolenceduringpeacetimeorinthecontextofwaragainstnon-combatants(mostlyciviliansandneutralmilitarypersonnel).[1]Theterms"terrorist"and"terrorism"originatedduringtheFrenchRevolutionofthelate18thcentury[2]butbecamewidelyusedinternationallyandgainedworldwideattentioninthe1970sduringtheNorthernIrelandconflict,theBasqueconflict,andtheIsraeli–Palestinianconflict.Theincreaseduseofsuicideattacksfromthe1980sonwardswastypifiedbythe2001September11attacksintheUnitedStates. Therearevariousdifferentdefinitionsofterrorism,withnouniversalagreementaboutit.[3][4]Terrorismisachargedterm.Itisoftenusedwiththeconnotationofsomethingthatis"morallywrong".Governmentsandnon-stategroupsusethetermtoabuseordenounceopposinggroups.[4][5][6][7][8]Variedpoliticalorganizationshavebeenaccusedofusingterrorismtoachievetheirobjectives.Theseincluderight-wingandleft-wingpoliticalorganizations,nationalistgroups,religiousgroups,revolutionariesandrulinggovernments.[9]Legislationdeclaringterrorismacrimehasbeenadoptedinmanystates.[10]Whenterrorismisperpetratedbynationstates,itisnotconsideredterrorismbythestateconductingit,makinglegalityalargelygrey-areaissue.[11]Thereisnoconsensusastowhetherterrorismshouldberegardedasawarcrime.[10][12] TheGlobalTerrorismDatabase,maintainedbytheUniversityofMaryland,CollegePark,hasrecordedmorethan61,000incidentsofnon-stateterrorism,resultinginatleast140,000deaths,between2000and2014.[13] Contents 1Etymology 2Historicalbackground 3Moderndefinitions 3.1Stateterrorism 3.2UnitedNations 3.3U.S.law 3.4Mediaspectacle 3.5Politicalviolence 4Pejorativeuse 5History 6Infographics 7Types 8Causesandmotivations 8.1Choiceofterrorismasatactic 8.2Causesmotivatingterrorism 8.3Personalandsocialfactors 9Democracyanddomesticterrorism 10Religiousterrorism 11Perpetrators 11.1Non-stategroups 11.2Statesponsors 11.3Stateterrorism 12Connectionwithtourism 13Funding 14Tactics 15Responses 15.1Terrorismresearch 15.2Internationalagreements 15.3ResponseintheUnitedStates 16Massmedia 17Outcomeofterroristgroups 18Databases 19Seealso 20Notes 21References 22Furtherreading 23Externallinks Etymology Etymologically,thewordterrorisderivedfromtheLatinverbTersere,whichlaterbecomesTerrere.ThelatterformappearsinEuropeanlanguagesasearlyasthe12thcentury;itsfirstknownuseinFrenchisthewordterriblein1160.By1356thewordterreurisinuse.TerreuristheoriginoftheMiddleEnglishtermterrour,whichlaterbecomesthemodernword"terror".[14] Historicalbackground Mainarticle:ReignofTerror SealoftheJacobinClub:'SocietyoftheJacobins,FriendsofFreedomandEquality' Thetermterroriste,meaning"terrorist",isfirstusedin1794bytheFrenchphilosopherFrançois-NoëlBabeuf,whodenouncesMaximilienRobespierre'sJacobinregimeasadictatorship.[15][16]IntheyearsleadinguptowhatbecameknownastheReignofTerror,theBrunswickManifestothreatenedPariswithan"exemplary,nevertobeforgottenvengeance:thecitywouldbesubjectedtomilitarypunishmentandtotaldestruction"iftheroyalfamilywasharmed,butthisonlyincreasedtheRevolution'swilltoabolishthemonarchy.[17]SomewritersattitudesaboutFrenchRevolutiongrewlessfavorableaftertheFrenchmonarchywasabolishedin1792.DuringtheReignofTerror,whichbeganinJuly1793andlastedthirteenmonths,PariswasgovernedbytheCommitteeofPublicsafetywhooversawaregimeofmassexecutionsandpublicpurges.[18] PriortotheFrenchRevolution,ancientphilosopherswroteabouttyrannicide,astyrannywasseenasthegreatestpoliticalthreattoGreco-Romancivilization.Medievalphilosophersweresimilarlyoccupiedwiththeconceptoftyranny,thoughtheanalysisofsometheologianslikeThomasAquinasdrewadistinctionbetweenusurpers,whocouldbekilledbyanyone,andlegitimaterulerswhoabusedtheirpower—thelatter,inAquinas'view,couldonlybepunishedbyapublicauthority.JohnofSalisburywasthefirstmedievalChristianscholartodefendtyrannicide.[14] GeneralNapoléonBonapartequellingtheOctober5,1795royalistrebellioninParis,infrontoftheÉgliseSaint-Roch,Saint-HonoréStreet,pavingthewayforDirectorygovernment. MostscholarstodaytracetheoriginsofthemoderntacticofterrorismtotheJewishSicariiZealotswhoattackedRomansandJewsin1st-centuryPalestine.TheyfollowitsdevelopmentfromthePersianOrderofAssassinsthroughto19th-centuryanarchists.The"ReignofTerror"isusuallyregardedasanissueofetymology.Thetermterrorismhasgenerallybeenusedtodescribeviolencebynon-stateactorsratherthangovernmentviolencesincethe19th-centuryAnarchistMovement.[17][19][20] InDecember1795,EdmundBurkeusedtheword"Terrorists"inadescriptionofthenewFrenchgovernmentcalled'Directory':[21] Atlength,afteraterriblestruggle,the[Directory]TroopsprevailedovertheCitizens ...Tosecurethemfurther,theyhaveastrongcorpsofirregulars,readyarmed.ThousandsofthoseHell-houndscalledTerrorists,whomtheyhadshutupinPrisonontheirlastRevolution,astheSatellitesofTyranny,areletlooseonthepeople.(emphasisadded) Theterms"terrorism"and"terrorist"gainedrenewedcurrencyinthe1970sasaresultoftheIsraeli–Palestinianconflict,[22]theNorthernIrelandconflict,[23]theBasqueconflict,[24]andtheoperationsofgroupssuchastheRedArmyFaction.[25]LeilaKhaledwasdescribedasaterroristina1970issueofLifemagazine.[26]Anumberofbooksonterrorismwerepublishedinthe1970s.[27]Thetopiccamefurthertotheforeafterthe1983Beirutbarracksbombings[7]andagainafterthe2001September11attacks[7][28][29]andthe2002Balibombings.[7] Moderndefinitions Seealso:Definitionsofterrorism AttackattheBolognarailwaystationonAugust2,1980,bytheneo-fascistgroupNucleiArmatiRivoluzionari.With85deaths,itisthedeadliestmassacreinthehistoryofItalyasaRepublic. Aftermathofthe2002bombattackattheMyyrmannishoppingmallinMyyrmäki,Vantaa,Finland.ThebombingwasespeciallyshockingforFinlandandtheotherNordiccountries,wherebombingsareextremelyrare.[30] TheBeslanschoolsiegebyChechenrebelsonSeptember1,2004.ItwasthedeadliestmassacreinthehistoryofRussiainthe21stcentury. In2006itwasestimatedthattherewereover109differentdefinitionsofterrorism.[31]AmericanpoliticalphilosopherMichaelWalzerin2002wrote:"Terrorismisthedeliberatekillingofinnocentpeople,atrandom,tospreadfearthroughawholepopulationandforcethehandofitspoliticalleaders".[4]BruceHoffman,anAmericanscholar,hasnotedthatitisnotonlyindividualagencieswithinthesamegovernmentalapparatusthatcannotagreeonasingledefinitionofterrorism.Expertsandotherlong-establishedscholarsinthefieldareequallyincapableofreachingaconsensus.[32] C.A.J.Coadyhaswrittenthatthequestionofhowtodefineterrorismis"irresolvable"because"itsnaturalhomeisinpolemical,ideologicalandpropagandistcontexts".[11] Expertsdisagreeabout"whetherterrorismiswrongbydefinitionorjustwrongasamatteroffact;theydisagreeaboutwhetherterrorismshouldbedefinedintermsofitsaims,oritsmethods,orboth,orneither;theydisagreeaboutwhetherstatescanperpetrateterrorism;theyevendisagreeabouttheimportanceorotherwiseofterrorforadefinitionofterrorism."[11] Stateterrorism Mainarticle:Stateterrorism Stateterrorismreferstoactsofterrorismconductedbyastateagainstitsowncitizensoragainstanotherstate.[33] UnitedNations InNovember2004,aSecretary-GeneraloftheUnitedNationsreportdescribedterrorismasanyact"intendedtocausedeathorseriousbodilyharmtociviliansornon-combatantswiththepurposeofintimidatingapopulationorcompellingagovernmentoraninternationalorganizationtodoorabstainfromdoinganyact".[34]Theinternationalcommunityhasbeenslowtoformulateauniversallyagreed,legallybindingdefinitionofthiscrime.Thesedifficultiesarisefromthefactthattheterm"terrorism"ispoliticallyandemotionallycharged.[35][36]Inthisregard,AngusMartyn,briefingtheAustralianparliament,stated, Theinternationalcommunityhasneversucceededindevelopinganacceptedcomprehensivedefinitionofterrorism.Duringthe1970sand1980s,theUnitedNationsattemptstodefinethetermflounderedmainlyduetodifferencesofopinionbetweenvariousmembersabouttheuseofviolenceinthecontextofconflictsovernationalliberationandself-determination.[37] ThesedivergenceshavemadeitimpossiblefortheUnitedNationstoconcludeaComprehensiveConventiononInternationalTerrorismthatincorporatesasingle,all-encompassing,legallybinding,criminallawdefinitionofterrorism.[38]Theinternationalcommunityhasadoptedaseriesofsectoralconventionsthatdefineandcriminalizevarioustypesofterroristactivities. Since1994,theUnitedNationsGeneralAssemblyhasrepeatedlycondemnedterroristactsusingthefollowingpoliticaldescriptionofterrorism: Criminalactsintendedorcalculatedtoprovokeastateofterrorinthepublic,agroupofpersonsorparticularpersonsforpoliticalpurposesareinanycircumstanceunjustifiable,whatevertheconsiderationsofapolitical,philosophical,ideological,racial,ethnic,religiousoranyothernaturethatmaybeinvokedtojustifythem.[39] U.S.law Variouslegalsystemsandgovernmentagenciesusedifferentdefinitionsofterrorismintheirnationallegislation. U.S.CodeTitle22Chapter38,Section2656f(d)definesterrorismas: "Premeditated,politicallymotivatedviolenceperpetratedagainstnoncombatanttargetsbysubnationalgroupsorclandestineagents".[40] 18U.S.C.§ 2331defines"internationalterrorism"and"domesticterrorism"forpurposesofChapter113BoftheCode,entitled"Terrorism": "Internationalterrorism"meansactivitieswiththefollowingthreecharacteristics:[41] Involveviolentactsoractsdangeroustohumanlifethatviolatefederalorstatelaw; Appeartobeintended(i)tointimidateorcoerceacivilianpopulation;(ii)toinfluencethepolicyofagovernmentbyintimidationorcoercion;or(iii)toaffecttheconductofagovernmentbymassdestruction,assassination,orkidnapping;and occurprimarilyoutsidetheterritorialjurisdictionoftheU.S.,ortranscendnationalboundariesintermsofthemeansbywhichtheyareaccomplished,thepersonstheyappearintendedtointimidateorcoerce,orthelocaleinwhichtheirperpetratorsoperateorseekasylum. Mediaspectacle AdefinitionproposedbyCarstenBockstetteattheGeorgeC.MarshallEuropeanCenterforSecurityStudies,underlinesthepsychologicalandtacticalaspectsofterrorism: Terrorismisdefinedaspoliticalviolenceinanasymmetricalconflictthatisdesignedtoinduceterrorandpsychicfear(sometimesindiscriminate)throughtheviolentvictimizationanddestructionofnoncombatanttargets(sometimesiconicsymbols).Suchactsaremeanttosendamessagefromanillicitclandestineorganization.Thepurposeofterrorismistoexploitthemediainordertoachievemaximumattainablepublicityasanamplifyingforcemultiplierinordertoinfluencethetargetedaudience(s)inordertoreachshort-andmidtermpoliticalgoalsand/ordesiredlong-termendstates.[42] Terroristsattacknationalsymbols,whichmaynegativelyaffectagovernment,whileincreasingtheprestigeofthegiventerroristgrouporitsideology.[43] Politicalviolence Seealso:Politicalviolence LuisPosadaandCORUarewidelyconsideredresponsibleforthe1976bombingofaCubanairlinerthatkilled73people.[44] Terroristactsfrequentlyhaveapoliticalpurpose.[45]Someofficial,governmentaldefinitionsofterrorismusethecriterionoftheillegitimacyorunlawfulnessoftheact.[46][better source needed]todistinguishbetweenactionsauthorizedbyagovernment(andthus"lawful")andthoseofotheractors,includingindividualsandsmallgroups.Forexample,carryingoutastrategicbombingonanenemycity,whichisdesignedtoaffectciviliansupportforacause,wouldnotbeconsideredterrorismifitwereauthorizedbyagovernment.Thiscriterionisinherentlyproblematicandisnotuniversallyaccepted,[attributionneeded]because:itdeniestheexistenceofstateterrorism.[47]Anassociatedtermisviolentnon-stateactor.[48] AccordingtoAliKhan,thedistinctionliesultimatelyinapoliticaljudgment.[49] Pejorativeuse Havingtheconnotationof"somethingmorallywrong",theterm"terrorism"isoftenusedtoabuseordenounceoppositeparties,eithergovernmentsornon-stategroups.[4][5][6][7][8]Anexampleofthisistheterruqueopoliticalattackusedbyright-winggroupsinPerutotargetleftistgroupsorthoseopposedtotheneoliberalstatusquo,likeningopponentstoguerillasfromtheinternalconflictinPeru.[50][51][52] Thoselabeled"terrorists"bytheiropponentsrarelyidentifythemselvesassuch,andtypicallyuseothertermsortermsspecifictotheirsituation,suchasseparatist,freedomfighter,liberator,revolutionary,vigilante,militant,paramilitary,guerrilla,rebel,patriot,oranysimilar-meaningwordinotherlanguagesandcultures.Jihadi,mujahideen,andfedayeenaresimilarArabicwordsthathaveenteredtheEnglishlexicon.Itiscommonforbothpartiesinaconflicttodescribeeachotherasterrorists.[53] Onwhetherparticularterroristacts,suchaskillingnon-combatants,canbejustifiedasthelesserevilinaparticularcircumstance,philosophershaveexpresseddifferentviews:while,accordingtoDavidRodin,utilitarianphilosopherscan(intheory)conceiveofcasesinwhichtheevilofterrorismisoutweighedbythegoodthatcouldnotbeachievedinalessmorallycostlyway,inpracticethe"harmfuleffectsofunderminingtheconventionofnon-combatantimmunityisthoughttooutweighthegoodsthatmaybeachievedbyparticularactsofterrorism".[54]Amongthenon-utilitarianphilosophers,MichaelWalzerarguedthatterrorismcanbemorallyjustifiedinonlyonespecificcase:when"anationorcommunityfacestheextremethreatofcompletedestructionandtheonlywayitcanpreserveitselfisbyintentionallytargetingnon-combatants,thenitismorallyentitledtodoso".[54][55] InhisbookInsideTerrorismBruceHoffmanofferedanexplanationofwhythetermterrorismbecomesdistorted: Ononepoint,atleast,everyoneagrees:terrorismisapejorativeterm.Itisawordwithintrinsicallynegativeconnotationsthatisgenerallyappliedtoone'senemiesandopponents,ortothosewithwhomonedisagreesandwouldotherwiseprefertoignore.'Whatiscalledterrorism,'BrianJenkinshaswritten,'thusseemstodependonone'spointofview.Useofthetermimpliesamoraljudgment;andifonepartycansuccessfullyattachthelabelterroristtoitsopponent,thenithasindirectlypersuadedotherstoadoptitsmoralviewpoint.'Hencethedecisiontocallsomeoneorlabelsomeorganizationterroristbecomesalmostunavoidablysubjective,dependinglargelyonwhetheronesympathizeswithoropposestheperson/group/causeconcerned.Ifoneidentifieswiththevictimoftheviolence,forexample,thentheactisterrorism.If,however,oneidentifieswiththeperpetrator,theviolentactisregardedinamoresympathetic,ifnotpositive(or,attheworst,anambivalent)light;anditisnotterrorism.[56][57][58]Thepejorativeconnotationsofthewordcanbesummedupintheaphorism,"Oneman'sterroristisanotherman'sfreedomfighter".[53]Thisisexemplifiedwhenagroupusingirregularmilitarymethodsisanallyofastateagainstamutualenemy,butlaterfallsoutwiththestateandstartstousethosemethodsagainstitsformerally.PresidentReaganmeetingwithAfghanMujahideenleadersintheOvalOfficein1983 DuringtheSecondWorldWar,theMalayanPeople'sAnti-JapaneseArmywerealliedwiththeBritish,butduringtheMalayanEmergency,membersofitssuccessororganisation(theMalayanNationalLiberationArmy)startedcampaignsagainstthem,andwerebranded"terrorists"asaresult.[59][60]Morerecently,RonaldReaganandothersintheAmericanadministrationfrequentlycalledthemujaheddin"freedomfighters"duringtheSoviet–AfghanWar[61]yettwentyyearslater,whenanewgenerationofAfghanmenwerefightingagainstwhattheyperceivetobearegimeinstalledbyforeignpowers,theirattackswerelabelled"terrorism"byGeorgeW.Bush.[62][63][64] Groupsaccusedofterrorismunderstandablyprefertermsreflectinglegitimatemilitaryorideologicalaction.[65][66][67]LeadingterrorismresearcherProfessorMartinRudner,directoroftheCanadianCentreofIntelligenceandSecurityStudiesatOttawa'sCarletonUniversity,defines"terroristacts"asunlawfulattacksforpoliticalorotherideologicalgoals,andsaid: Thereisthefamousstatement:'Oneman'sterroristisanotherman'sfreedomfighter.'Butthatisgrosslymisleading.Itassessesthevalidityofthecausewhenterrorismisanact.Onecanhaveaperfectlybeautifulcauseandyetifonecommitsterroristacts,itisterrorismregardless.[68] Somegroups,wheninvolvedina"liberation"struggle,havebeencalled"terrorists"bytheWesterngovernmentsormedia.Later,thesesamepersons,asleadersoftheliberatednations,arecalled"statesmen"bysimilarorganizations.TwoexamplesofthisphenomenonaretheNobelPeacePrizelaureatesMenachemBeginandNelsonMandela.[69][70][71][72][73][74]WikiLeakseditorJulianAssangehasbeencalleda"terrorist"bySarahPalinandJoeBiden.[75][76] Sometimes,statesthatarecloseallies,forreasonsofhistory,cultureandpolitics,candisagreeoverwhethermembersofacertainorganizationareterrorists.Forinstance,formanyyears,somebranchesoftheUnitedStatesgovernmentrefusedtolabelmembersoftheProvisionalIrishRepublicanArmy(IRA)asterroristswhiletheIRAwasusingmethodsagainstoneoftheUnitedStates'closestallies(theUnitedKingdom)thattheUKbrandedasterrorism.ThiswashighlightedbytheQuinnv.Robinsoncase.[77][78] Mediaoutletswhowishtoconveyimpartialitymaylimittheirusageof"terrorist"and"terrorism"becausetheyarelooselydefined,potentiallycontroversialinnature,andsubjectiveterms.[79][80] The2020Nashvillebombingrevivedadebateovertheuseoftheword"terrorism",withcriticssayingitisquicklyappliedtoattacksbyMuslimsbutreluctantlyifatallusedbywhiteChristianmen,suchastheNashvillebomber.[81] History Mainarticle:Historyofterrorism TheIrishRepublicanBrotherhoodwasoneoftheearliestorganizationstousemodernterroristtactics.Pictured,"TheFenianGuyFawkes"byJohnTenniel(1867). Dependingonhowbroadlythetermisdefined,therootsandpracticeofterrorismcanbetracedatleasttothe1stcenturyAD.[82]SicariiZealots,thoughsomedisputewhetherthegroup,aradicaloffshootoftheZealotswhichwasactiveinJudaeaProvinceatthebeginningofthe1stcenturyAD,wasinfactterrorist.AccordingtothecontemporaryJewish-RomanhistorianJosephus,aftertheZealotryrebellionagainstRomanruleinJudea,whensomeprominentJewishcollaboratorswithRomanrulewerekilled,[83][84]JudasofGalileeformedasmallandmoreextremeoffshootoftheZealots,theSicarii,in6AD.[85]TheirterrorwasdirectedagainstJewish"collaborators",includingtemplepriests,Sadducees,Herodians,andotherwealthyelites.[86] Theterm"terrorism"itselfwasoriginallyusedtodescribetheactionsoftheJacobinClubduringthe"ReignofTerror"intheFrenchRevolution."Terrorisnothingotherthanjustice,prompt,severe,inflexible",saidJacobinleaderMaximilienRobespierre.In1795,EdmundBurkedenouncedtheJacobinsforletting"thousandsofthosehell-houndscalledTerrorists ...looseonthepeople"ofFrance. InJanuary1858,ItalianpatriotFeliceOrsinithrewthreebombsinanattempttoassassinateFrenchEmperorNapoleonIII.[87]Eightbystanderswerekilledand142injured.[87]Theincidentplayedacrucialroleasaninspirationforthedevelopmentoftheearlyterroristgroups.[87] ArguablythefirstorganizationtoutilizemodernterroristtechniqueswastheIrishRepublicanBrotherhood,[88]foundedin1858asarevolutionaryIrishnationalistgroup[89]thatcarriedoutattacksinEngland.[90]ThegroupinitiatedtheFeniandynamitecampaignin1881,oneofthefirstmodernterrorcampaigns.[91]Insteadofearlierformsofterrorismbasedonpoliticalassassination,thiscampaignusedtimedexplosiveswiththeexpressaimofsowingfearintheveryheartofmetropolitanBritain,inordertoachievepoliticalgains.[92] AnotherearlyterroristgroupwasNarodnayaVolya,foundedinRussiain1878asarevolutionaryanarchistgroupinspiredbySergeiNechayevand"propagandabythedeed"theoristCarloPisacane.[82][93][94]Thegroupdevelopedideas—suchastargetedkillingofthe'leadersofoppression'—thatweretobecomethehallmarkofsubsequentviolencebysmallnon-stategroups,andtheywereconvincedthatthedevelopingtechnologiesoftheage—suchastheinventionofdynamite,whichtheywerethefirstanarchistgrouptomakewidespreaduseof[95]—enabledthemtostrikedirectlyandwithdiscrimination.[96] DavidRapoportreferstofourmajorwavesofglobalterrorism:"theAnarchist,theAnti-Colonial,theNewLeft,andtheReligious.Thefirstthreehavebeencompletedandlastedaround40years;thefourthisnowinitsthirddecade."[97] Infographics Seealso:Numberofterroristincidentsbycountry Terroristincidents,1970–2015.Atotalof157,520incidentsareplotted.Orange:1970–1999,Red:2000–2015 Top10Countries(2000–2014) Worldwidenon-stateterroristincidents1970–2017 Sharewhoareworriedaboutvs.shareofdeathsfromterrorism Types Thissectionneedsadditionalcitationsforverification.Pleasehelpimprovethisarticlebyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.(March2017)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Dependingonthecountry,thepoliticalsystem,andthetimeinhistory,thetypesofterrorismarevarying. Numberoffailed,foiledorsuccessfulterroristattacksbyyearandtypewithintheEuropeanUnion.Source:Europol.[98][99][100] AftermathoftheKingDavidHotelbombingbytheZionistmilitantgroupIrgun,July1946 AviewofdamagetotheU.S.Embassyintheaftermathofthe1983BeirutbombingcausedbyIslamicJihadOrganizationandHezbollah Inearly1975,theLawEnforcementAssistantAdministrationintheUnitedStatesformedtheNationalAdvisoryCommitteeonCriminalJusticeStandardsandGoals.OneofthefivevolumesthatthecommitteewrotewastitledDisordersandTerrorism,producedbytheTaskForceonDisordersandTerrorismunderthedirectionofH.H.A.Cooper,DirectoroftheTaskForcestaff. TheTaskForcedefinesterrorismas"atacticortechniquebymeansofwhichaviolentactorthethreatthereofisusedfortheprimepurposeofcreatingoverwhelmingfearforcoercivepurposes".Itclassifieddisordersandterrorismintosixcategories:[101] Civildisorder–Aformofcollectiveviolenceinterferingwiththepeace,security,andnormalfunctioningofthecommunity. Politicalterrorism–Violentcriminalbehaviourdesignedprimarilytogeneratefearinthecommunity,orsubstantialsegmentofit,forpoliticalpurposes. Non-Politicalterrorism–Terrorismthatisnotaimedatpoliticalpurposesbutwhichexhibits"consciousdesigntocreateandmaintainahighdegreeoffearforcoercivepurposes,buttheendisindividualorcollectivegainratherthantheachievementofapoliticalobjective". Anonymousterrorism–Inthetwodecadespriorto2016–19,"fewerthanhalf"ofallterroristattackswereeither"claimedbytheirperpetratorsorconvincinglyattributedbygovernmentstospecificterroristgroups".Anumberoftheoryhavebeenadvancedastowhythishashappened.[102] Quasi-terrorism–Theactivitiesincidentaltothecommissionofcrimesofviolencethataresimilarinformandmethodtogenuineterrorismbutwhichneverthelesslackitsessentialingredient.Itisnotthemainpurposeofthequasi-terroriststoinduceterrorintheimmediatevictimasinthecaseofgenuineterrorism,butthequasi-terroristusesthemodalitiesandtechniquesofthegenuineterroristandproducessimilarconsequencesandreaction.[103][104][105]Forexample,thefleeingfelonwhotakeshostagesisaquasi-terrorist,whosemethodsaresimilartothoseofthegenuineterroristbutwhosepurposesarequitedifferent. Limitedpoliticalterrorism–Genuinepoliticalterrorismischaracterizedbyarevolutionaryapproach;limitedpoliticalterrorismrefersto"actsofterrorismwhicharecommittedforideologicalorpoliticalmotivesbutwhicharenotpartofaconcertedcampaigntocapturecontrolofthestate". Officialorstateterrorism–"referringtonationswhoseruleisbaseduponfearandoppressionthatreachsimilartoterrorismorsuchproportions".ItmaybereferredtoasStructuralTerrorismdefinedbroadlyasterroristactscarriedoutbygovernmentsinpursuitofpoliticalobjectives,oftenaspartoftheirforeignpolicy. Othersourceshavedefinedthetypologyofterrorismindifferentways,forexample,broadlyclassifyingitintodomesticterrorismandinternationalterrorism,orusingcategoriessuchasvigilanteterrorismorinsurgentterrorism.[106]Onewaythetypologyofterrorismmaybedefined:[107][108] Politicalterrorism Sub-stateterrorism Socialrevolutionaryterrorism Nationalist-separatistterrorism Religiousextremistterrorism ReligiousfundamentalistTerrorism Newreligionsterrorism Right-wingterrorism Left-wingterrorism Communistterrorism State-sponsoredterrorism Regimeorstateterrorism Criminalterrorism Pathologicalterrorism Causesandmotivations Choiceofterrorismasatactic Individualsandgroupschooseterrorismasatacticbecauseitcan: Actasaformofasymmetricwarfareinordertodirectlyforceagovernmenttoagreetodemands Intimidateagroupofpeopleintocapitulatingtothedemandsinordertoavoidfutureinjury Getattentionandthuspoliticalsupportforacause Directlyinspiremorepeopletothecause(suchasrevolutionaryacts)–propagandaofthedeed Indirectlyinspiremorepeopletothecausebyprovokingahostileresponseorover-reactionfromenemiestothecause[109] Attackson"collaborators"areusedtointimidatepeoplefromcooperatingwiththestateinordertounderminestatecontrol.ThisstrategywasusedinIreland,inKenya,inAlgeriaandinCyprusduringtheirindependencestruggles.[110] StatedmotivesfortheSeptember11attacksincludedinspiringmorefighterstojointhecauseofrepellingtheUnitedStatesfromMuslimcountrieswithasuccessfulhigh-profileattack.TheattackspromptedsomecriticismfromdomesticandinternationalobserversregardingperceivedinjusticesinU.S.foreignpolicythatprovokedtheattacks,butthelargerpracticaleffectwasthattheUnitedStatesgovernmentdeclaredaWaronTerrorthatresultedinsubstantialmilitaryengagementsinseveralMuslim-majoritycountries.Variouscommentatorshaveinferredthatal-Qaedaexpectedamilitaryresponse,andwelcomeditasaprovocationthatwouldresultinmoreMuslimsfighttheUnitedStates.SomecommentatorsbelievethattheresultingangerandsuspiciondirectedtowardinnocentMuslimslivinginWesterncountriesandtheindignitiesinflicteduponthembysecurityforcesandthegeneralpublicalsocontributestoradicalizationofnewrecruits.[109]DespitecriticismthattheIraqigovernmenthadnoinvolvementwiththeSeptember11attacks,Bushdeclaredthe2003invasionofIraqtobepartoftheWaronTerror.TheresultingbacklashandinstabilityenabledtheriseofIslamicStateofIraqandtheLevantandthetemporarycreationofanIslamiccaliphateholdingterritoryinIraqandSyria,untilISILlostitsterritorythroughmilitarydefeats. AttacksusedtodrawinternationalattentiontostrugglesthatareotherwiseunreportedhaveincludedthePalestinianairplanehijackingsin1970andthe1975Dutchtrainhostagecrisis. Causesmotivatingterrorism Specificpoliticalorsocialcauseshaveincluded: Independenceorseparatistmovements Irredentistmovements Adoptionofaparticularpoliticalphilosophy,suchassocialism(left-wingterrorism),anarchism,orfascism(possiblythroughacouporasanideologyofanindependenceorseparatistmovement) Environmentalprotection(ecoterrorism) Supremacismofaparticulargroup Preventingarivalgroupfromsharingoroccupyingaparticularterritory(suchasbydiscouragingimmigrationorencouragingflight) Subjugationofaparticularpopulation(suchaslynchingofAfricanAmericans) Spreadordominanceofaparticularreligion–religiousterrorism Endingperceivedgovernmentoppression Respondingtoaviolentact(forexample,tit-for-tatattacksintheIsraeli–Palestinianconflict,inTheTroublesinNorthernIreland,orTimothyMcVeigh'srevengefortheWacosiegeandRubyRidgeincident) Causesforright-wingterrorismhaveincludedwhitenationalism,ethnonationalism,fascism,anti-socialism,theanti-abortionmovement,andtaxresistance. Sometimesterroristsonthesamesidefightfordifferentreasons.Forexample,intheChechen–RussianconflictsecularChechensusingterroristtacticsfightingfornationalindependencearealliedwithradicalIslamistterroristswhohavearrivedfromothercountries.[111] Personalandsocialfactors Mainarticle:Radicalization Variouspersonalandsocialfactorsmayinfluencethepersonalchoiceofwhethertojoinaterroristgrouporattemptanactofterror,including: Identity,includingaffiliationwithaparticularculture,ethnicity,orreligion Previousexposuretoviolence Financialreward(forexample,thePalestinianAuthorityMartyrsFund) Mentalhealthdisorder Socialisolation Perceptionthatthecauserespondstoaprofoundinjusticeorindignity AreportconductedbyPaulGill,JohnHorganandPaigeDeckert[dubious–discuss]foundthatfor"lonewolf"terrorists:[112] 43%weremotivatedbyreligiousbeliefs 32%hadpre-existingmentalhealthdisorders,whilemanymorearefoundtohavementalhealthproblemsuponarrest Atleast37%livedaloneatthetimeoftheireventplanningand/orexecution,afurther26%livedwithothers,andnodatawereavailablefortheremainingcases 40%wereunemployedatthetimeoftheirarrestorterroristevent 19%subjectivelyexperiencedbeingdisrespectedbyothers 14%percentexperiencedbeingthevictimofverbalorphysicalassault ArielMerari,apsychologistwhohasstudiedthepsychologicalprofilesofsuicideterroristssince1983throughmediareportsthatcontainedbiographicaldetails,interviewswiththesuicides'families,andinterviewswithjailedwould-besuicideattackers,concludedthattheywereunlikelytobepsychologicallyabnormal.[113]Incomparisontoeconomictheoriesofcriminalbehaviour,ScottAtranfoundthatsuicideterroristsexhibitnoneofthesociallydysfunctionalattributes—suchasfatherless,friendless,joblesssituations—orsuicidalsymptoms.Bywhichhemeans,theydonotkillthemselvessimplyoutofhopelessnessorasenseof'havingnothingtolose'.[114] Abrahmsuggeststhatterroristorganizationsdonotselectterrorismforitspoliticaleffectiveness.[115]Individualterroriststendtobemotivatedmorebyadesireforsocialsolidaritywithothermembersoftheirorganizationthanbypoliticalplatformsorstrategicobjectives,whichareoftenmurkyandundefined.[115] MichaelMousseaushowspossiblerelationshipsbetweenthetypeofeconomywithinacountryandideologyassociatedwithterrorism.[exampleneeded][116]Manyterroristshaveahistoryofdomesticviolence.[117] Democracyanddomesticterrorism Terrorismismostcommoninnationswithintermediatepoliticalfreedom,anditisleastcommoninthemostdemocraticnations.[118][119][120][121] Someexamplesof"terrorism"innon-democraticnationsincludeETAinSpainunderFranciscoFranco(althoughthegroup'sterroristactivitiesincreasedsharplyafterFranco'sdeath),[122]theOrganizationofUkrainianNationalistsinpre-warPoland,[123]theShiningPathinPeruunderAlbertoFujimori,[124]theKurdistanWorkersPartywhenTurkeywasruledbymilitaryleadersandtheANCinSouthAfrica.[125]Democracies,suchasJapan,theUnitedKingdom,theUnitedStates,Israel,Indonesia,India,Spain,Germany,ItalyandthePhilippines,haveexperienceddomesticterrorism. Whileademocraticnationespousingcivillibertiesmayclaimasenseofhighermoralgroundthanotherregimes,anactofterrorismwithinsuchastatemaycauseadilemma:whethertomaintainitscivillibertiesandthusriskbeingperceivedasineffectiveindealingwiththeproblem;oralternativelytorestrictitscivillibertiesandthusriskdelegitimizingitsclaimofsupportingcivilliberties.[126]Forthisreason,homegrownterrorismhasstartedtobeseenasagreaterthreat,asstatedbyformerCIADirectorMichaelHayden.[127]Thisdilemma,somesocialtheoristswouldconclude,mayverywellplayintotheinitialplansoftheactingterrorist(s);namely,todelegitimizethestateandcauseasystematicshifttowardsanarchyviatheaccumulationofnegativesentimentstowardsthestatesystem.[128] Religiousterrorism Mainarticle:Religiousterrorism IslamabadMarriottHotelbombing.Some35,000Pakistanishavediedfromterroristattacksinrecentyears[when?].[129] AccordingtotheGlobalTerrorismIndexbytheUniversityofMaryland,CollegePark,religiousextremismhasovertakennationalseparatismandbecomethemaindriverofterroristattacksaroundtheworld.Since9/11therehasbeenafive-foldincreaseindeathsfromterroristattacks.Themajorityofincidentsoverthepastseveralyearscanbetiedtogroupswithareligiousagenda.Before2000,itwasnationalistseparatistterroristorganizationssuchastheIRAandChechenrebelswhowerebehindthemostattacks.Thenumberofincidentsfromnationalistseparatistgroupshasremainedrelativelystableintheyearssincewhilereligiousextremismhasgrown.TheprevalenceofIslamistgroupsinIraq,Afghanistan,Pakistan,NigeriaandSyriaisthemaindriverbehindthesetrends.[130] Fouroftheterroristgroupsthathavebeenmostactivesince2001areBokoHaram,AlQaeda,theTalibanandISIL.ThesegroupshavebeenmostactiveinIraq,Afghanistan,Pakistan,NigeriaandSyria.Eightypercentofalldeathsfromterrorismoccurredinoneofthesefivecountries.[130]In2015fourIslamicextremistgroupswereresponsiblefor74%ofalldeathsfromIslamicterrorism:ISIS,BokoHaram,theTaliban,andal-Qaeda,accordingtotheGlobalTerrorismIndex2016.[131]Sinceapproximately2000,theseincidentshaveoccurredonaglobalscale,affectingnotonlyMuslim-majoritystatesinAfricaandAsia,butalsostateswithnon-MuslimmajoritysuchasUnitedStates,UnitedKingdom,France,Germany,Spain,Belgium,Sweden,Russia,Australia,Canada,SriLanka,Israel,China,IndiaandPhilippines.SuchattackshavetargetedbothMuslimsandnon-Muslims,howeverthemajorityaffectMuslimsthemselves.[132] TerrorisminPakistanhasbecomeagreatproblem.Fromthesummerof2007untillate2009,morethan1,500peoplewerekilledinsuicideandotherattacksoncivilians[133]forreasonsattributedtoanumberofcauses—sectarianviolencebetweenSunniandShiaMuslims;easyavailabilityofgunsandexplosives;theexistenceofa"Kalashnikovculture";aninfluxofideologicallydrivenMuslimsbasedinornearPakistan,whooriginatedfromvariousnationsaroundtheworldandthesubsequentwaragainstthepro-SovietAfghansinthe1980swhichblewbackintoPakistan;thepresenceofIslamistinsurgentgroupsandforcessuchastheTalibanandLashkar-e-Taiba.OnJuly2,2013,inLahore,50MuslimscholarsoftheSunniIttehadCouncil(SIC)issuedacollectivefatwaagainstsuicidebombings,thekillingofinnocentpeople,bombattacks,andtargetedkillingsdeclaringthemasHaraamorforbidden.[134] In2015,theSouthernPovertyLawCenterreleasedareportonterrorismintheUnitedStates.Thereport(titledTheAgeoftheWolf)foundthatduringthatperiod,"morepeoplehavebeenkilledinAmericabynon-Islamicdomesticterroriststhanjihadists."[135]The"virulentracistandanti-semitic"ideologyoftheultra-rightwingChristianIdentitymovementisusuallyaccompaniedbyanti-governmentsentiments.[136]AdherentsofChristianIdentityarenotconnectedwithspecificChristiandenominations,[137]andtheybelievethatwhitesofEuropeandescentcanbetracedbacktothe"LostTribesofIsrael"andmanyconsiderJewstobetheSatanicoffspringofEveandtheSerpent.[136]Thisgrouphascommittedhatecrimes,bombingsandotheractsofterrorism.ItsinfluencerangesfromtheKuKluxKlanandneo-Nazigroupstotheanti-governmentmilitiaandsovereigncitizenmovements.[136]ChristianIdentity'soriginscanbetracedbacktoAnglo-Israelism,whichheldtheviewthattheBritishpeopleweredescendantsofancientIsraelites.However,intheUnitedStates,theideologystartedtobecomerifewithanti-Semitism,andeventuallyChristianIdentitytheologydivergedfromthephilo-semiticAnglo-Israelism,anddevelopedwhatisknownasthe"twoseed"theory.[136]Accordingtothetwo-seedtheory,theJewishpeoplearedescendedfromCainandtheserpent(notfromShem).[136]ThewhiteEuropeanseedlineisdescendedfromthe"losttribes"ofIsrael.Theyholdthemselvesto"God'slaws",notto"man'slaws",andtheydonotfeelboundtoagovernmentthattheyconsiderrunbyJewsandtheNewWorldOrder.[136]TheKuKluxKlaniswidelydenouncedbyChristiandenominations.[138] DawabshehfamilyhomeafterDumaarsonattack IsraelhashadproblemswithJewishreligiousterrorismevenbeforeindependencein1948.DuringBritishmandateoverPalestine,theIrgunwereamongtheZionistgroupslabelledasterroristorganisationsbytheBritishauthoritiesandUnitedNations,[139]forviolentterrorattacksagainstBritonsandArabs.[140][141]Anotherextremistgroup,theLehi,openlydeclareditsmembersas"terrorists".[142][143]HistorianWilliamClevelandstatedmanyJewsjustifiedanyaction,eventerrorism,takeninthecauseofthecreationofaJewishstate.[144]In1995,YigalAmirassassinatedIsraeliPrimeMinisterYitzhakRabin.ForAmir,killingRabinwasanexemplaryactthatsymbolizedthefightagainstanillegitimategovernmentthatwaspreparedtocedeJewishHolyLandtothePalestinians.[145] Perpetrators Al-QaidainMagrebmembersposewithweapons. Theperpetratorsofactsofterrorismcanbeindividuals,groups,orstates.Accordingtosomedefinitions,clandestineorsemi-clandestinestateactorsmaycarryoutterroristactsoutsidetheframeworkofastateofwar.Themostcommonimageofterrorismisthatitiscarriedoutbysmallandsecretivecells,highlymotivatedtoserveaparticularcauseandmanyofthemostdeadlyoperationsinrecenttimes,suchastheSeptember11attacks,theLondonundergroundbombing,2008Mumbaiattacksandthe2002Balibombingwereplannedandcarriedoutbyacloseclique,composedofclosefriends,familymembersandotherstrongsocialnetworks.Thesegroupsbenefitedfromthefreeflowofinformationandefficienttelecommunicationstosucceedwhereothershadfailed.[146] Overtheyears,muchresearchhasbeenconductedtodistillaterroristprofiletoexplaintheseindividuals'actionsthroughtheirpsychologyandsocio-economiccircumstances.[147]Others,likeRoderickHindery,havesoughttodiscernprofilesinthepropagandatacticsusedbyterrorists.Somesecurityorganizationsdesignatethesegroupsasviolentnon-stateactors.[citationneeded]A2007studybyeconomistAlanB.Kruegerfoundthatterroristswerelesslikelytocomefromanimpoverishedbackground(28percentversus33percent)andmorelikelytohaveatleastahigh-schooleducation(47percentversus38percent).Anotheranalysisfoundonly16percentofterroristscamefromimpoverishedfamilies,versus30percentofmalePalestinians,andover60percenthadgonebeyondhighschool,versus15percentofthepopulace.Astudyintothepoverty-strickenconditionsandwhetherterroristsaremorelikelytocomefromhere,showthatpeoplewhogrewupinthesesituationstendtoshowaggressionandfrustrationtowardsothers.Thistheoryislargelydebatedforthesimplefactthatjustbecauseoneisfrustrated,doesnotmakethemapotentialterrorist.[31][148] Toavoiddetection,aterroristwilllook,dress,andbehavenormallyuntilexecutingtheassignedmission.Someclaimthatattemptstoprofileterroristsbasedonpersonality,physical,orsociologicaltraitsarenotuseful.[149]Thephysicalandbehavioraldescriptionoftheterroristcoulddescribealmostanynormalperson.[150]themajorityofterroristattacksarecarriedoutbymilitaryagemen,aged16to40.[150] Non-stategroups ThereisspeculationthatanthraxmailedinsideletterstoU.S.politicianswastheworkofalonewolf. Mainarticles:Listofdesignatedterroristgroups,Lonewolf(terrorism),andViolentnon-stateactor Groupsnotpartofthestateapparatusofinoppositiontothestatearemostcommonlyreferredtoasa"terrorist"inthemedia. AccordingtotheGlobalTerrorismDatabase,themostactiveterroristgroupintheperiod1970to2010wasShiningPath(with4,517attacks),followedbyFarabundoMartiNationalLiberationFront(FMLN),IrishRepublicanArmy(IRA),BasqueFatherlandandFreedom(ETA),RevolutionaryArmedForcesofColombia(FARC),Taliban,LiberationTigersofTamilEelam,NewPeople'sArmy,NationalLiberationArmyofColombia(ELN),andKurdistanWorkersParty(PKK).[151] Statesponsors Mainarticle:State-sponsoredterrorism Astatecansponsorterrorismbyfundingorharboringaterroristgroup.Opinionsastowhichactsofviolencebystatesconsistofstate-sponsoredterrorismvarywidely.Whenstatesprovidefundingforgroupsconsideredbysometobeterrorist,theyrarelyacknowledgethemassuch.[152][citationneeded] Stateterrorism Mainarticle:Stateterrorism Civilizationisbasedonaclearlydefinedandwidelyacceptedyetoftenunarticulatedhierarchy.Violencedonebythosehigheronthehierarchytothoselowerisnearlyalwaysinvisible,thatis,unnoticed.Whenitisnoticed,itisfullyrationalized.Violencedonebythoseloweronthehierarchytothosehigherisunthinkable,andwhenitdoesoccuritisregardedwithshock,horror,andthefetishizationofthevictims.— DerrickJensen[153] InfantcryinginShanghai'sSouthStationaftertheJapanesebombing,August28,1937. Aswith"terrorism"theconceptof"stateterrorism"iscontroversial.[154]TheChairmanoftheUnitedNationsCounter-TerrorismCommitteehasstatedthatthecommitteewasconsciousof12internationalconventionsonthesubject,andnoneofthemreferredtostateterrorism,whichwasnotaninternationallegalconcept.Ifstatesabusedtheirpower,theyshouldbejudgedagainstinternationalconventionsdealingwithwarcrimes,internationalhumanrightslaw,andinternationalhumanitarianlaw.[155]FormerUnitedNationsSecretary-GeneralKofiAnnanhassaidthatitis"timetosetasidedebatesonso-called'stateterrorism'.Theuseofforcebystatesisalreadythoroughlyregulatedunderinternationallaw".[156]hemadeclearthat,"regardlessofthedifferencesbetweengovernmentsonthequestionofthedefinitionofterrorism,whatisclearandwhatwecanallagreeonisthatanydeliberateattackoninnocentcivilians[ornon-combatants],regardlessofone'scause,isunacceptableandfitsintothedefinitionofterrorism."[157] USSArizona(BB-39)burningduringtheJapanesesurpriseattackonPearlHarbor,December7,1941. Stateterrorismhasbeenusedtorefertoterroristactscommittedbygovernmentalagentsorforces.Thisinvolvestheuseofstateresourcesemployedbyastate'sforeignpolicies,suchasusingitsmilitarytodirectlyperformactsofterrorism.ProfessorofPoliticalScienceMichaelStohlcitestheexamplesthatincludetheGermanbombingofLondon,theJapanesebombingofPearlHarbor,theAlliedfirebombingofDresden,andtheU.S.atomicbombingsofHiroshimaandNagasakiduringWorldWarII.Hearguesthat"theuseofterrortacticsiscommonininternationalrelationsandthestatehasbeenandremainsamorelikelyemployerofterrorismwithintheinternationalsystemthaninsurgents."Hecitesthefirststrikeoptionasanexampleofthe"terrorofcoercivediplomacy"asaformofthis,whichholdstheworldhostagewiththeimpliedthreatofusingnuclearweaponsin"crisismanagement"andhearguesthattheinstitutionalizedformofterrorismhasoccurredasaresultofchangesthattookplacefollowingWorldWarII.Inthisanalysis,stateterrorismexhibitedasaformofforeignpolicywasshapedbythepresenceanduseofweaponsofmassdestruction,andthelegitimizingofsuchviolentbehaviorledtoanincreasinglyacceptedformofthisbehaviorbythestate.[158][159][160] StPaul'sCathedralaftertheGermanbombingofLondon,c.1940.CharlesStewartParnelldescribedWilliamEwartGladstone'sIrishCoercionActasterrorisminhis"no-Rentmanifesto"in1881,duringtheIrishLandWar.[161]Theconceptisusedtodescribepoliticalrepressionsbygovernmentsagainsttheirowncivilianpopulationswiththepurposeofincitingfear.Forexample,takingandexecutingcivilianhostagesorextrajudicialeliminationcampaignsarecommonlyconsidered"terror"orterrorism,forexampleduringtheRedTerrorortheGreatTerror.[162]Suchactionsareoftendescribedasdemocideorgenocide,whichhavebeenarguedtobeequivalenttostateterrorism.[163]Empiricalstudiesonthishavefoundthatdemocracieshavelittledemocide.[164][165]Westerndemocracies,includingtheUnitedStates,havesupportedstateterrorism[166]andmasskillings,[167][168]withsomeexamplesbeingtheIndonesianmasskillingsof1965–66andOperationCondor.[169][170][171] Connectionwithtourism TheconnectionbetweenterrorismandtourismhasbeenwidelystudiedsincetheLuxormassacreinEgypt.[172][173]Inthe1970s,thetargetsofterroristswerepoliticiansandchiefsofpolicewhilenow,internationaltouristsandvisitorsareselectedasthemaintargetsofattacks.TheattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagononSeptember11,2001,werethesymboliccenter,whichmarkedanewepochintheuseofciviltransportagainstthemainpoweroftheplanet.[174]Fromthiseventonwards,thespacesofleisurethatcharacterizedtheprideofWest,wereconceivedasdangerousandfrightful.[175][176] Funding Mainarticle:Terroristfinancing Statesponsorshaveconstitutedamajorformoffunding;forexample,PalestineLiberationOrganization,DemocraticFrontfortheLiberationofPalestineandothergroupsconsideredtobeterroristorganizations,werefundedbytheSovietUnion.[177][178]TheSternGangreceivedfundingfromItalianFascistofficersinBeiruttounderminetheBritishauthoritiesinPalestine.[179] "Revolutionarytax"isanothermajorformoffunding,andessentiallyaeuphemismfor"protectionmoney".[177]Revolutionarytaxes"playasecondaryroleasoneothermeansofintimidatingthetargetpopulation".[177] Othermajorsourcesoffundingincludekidnappingforransoms,smuggling(includingwildlifesmuggling),[180]fraud,androbbery.[177]TheIslamicStateinIraqandtheLevanthasreportedlyreceivedfunding"viaprivatedonationsfromtheGulfstates".[181] TheFinancialActionTaskForceisaninter-governmentalbodywhosemandate,sinceOctober2001,hasincludedcombatingterroristfinancing.[182] Tactics Mainarticle:Tacticsofterrorism TheWallStreetbombingatnoononSeptember16,1920,killedthirty-eightpeopleandinjuredseveralhundred.Theperpetratorswerenevercaught.[183] Terroristattacksareoftentargetedtomaximizefearandpublicity,mostfrequentlyusingexplosives.[184] Terroristgroupsusuallymethodicallyplanattacksinadvance,andmaytrainparticipants,plantundercoveragents,andraisemoneyfromsupportersorthroughorganizedcrime.Communicationsoccurthroughmoderntelecommunications,orthroughold-fashionedmethodssuchascouriers.Thereisconcernaboutterroristattacksemployingweaponsofmassdestruction.Someacademicshavearguedthatwhileitisoftenassumedterrorismisintendedtospreadfear,thisisnotnecessarilytrue,withfearinsteadbeingaby-productoftheterrorist'sactions,whiletheirintentionsmaybetoavengefallencomradesordestroytheirperceivedenemies.[185] Terrorismisaformofasymmetricwarfare,andismorecommonwhendirectconventionalwarfarewillnotbeeffectivebecauseopposingforcesvarygreatlyinpower.[186]YuvalHarariarguesthatthepeacefulnessofmodernstatesmakesthemparadoxicallymorevulnerabletoterrorismthanpre-modernstates.Harariarguesthatbecausemodernstateshavecommittedthemselvestoreducingpoliticalviolencetoalmostzero,terroristscan,bycreatingpoliticalviolence,threatentheveryfoundationsofthelegitimacyofthemodernstate.Thisisincontrasttopre-modernstates,whereviolencewasaroutineandrecognisedaspectofpoliticsatalllevels,makingpoliticalviolenceunremarkable.Terrorismthusshocksthepopulationofamodernstatefarmorethanapre-modernoneandconsequentlythestateisforcedtooverreactinanexcessive,costlyandspectacularmanner,whichisoftenwhattheterroristsdesire.[187] Thetypeofpeopleterroristswilltargetisdependentupontheideologyoftheterrorists.Aterrorist'sideologywillcreateaclassof"legitimatetargets"whoaredeemedasitsenemiesandwhoarepermittedtobetargeted.Thisideologywillalsoallowtheterroriststoplacetheblameonthevictim,whoisviewedasbeingresponsiblefortheviolenceinthefirstplace.[188][189] Thecontextinwhichterroristtacticsareusedisoftenalarge-scale,unresolvedpoliticalconflict.Thetypeofconflictvarieswidely;historicalexamplesinclude: Secessionofaterritorytoformanewsovereignstateorbecomepartofadifferentstate Dominanceofterritoryorresourcesbyvariousethnicgroups Impositionofaparticularformofgovernment Economicdeprivationofapopulation Oppositiontoadomesticgovernmentoroccupyingarmy Religiousfanaticism Responses Signnotifyingshoppersofincreasedsurveillanceduetoaperceivedincreasedriskofterrorism Responsestoterrorismarebroadinscope.Theycanincludere-alignmentsofthepoliticalspectrumandreassessmentsoffundamentalvalues. Specifictypesofresponsesinclude: Targetedlaws,criminalprocedures,deportations,andenhancedpolicepowers Targethardening,suchaslockingdoorsoraddingtrafficbarriers Preemptiveorreactivemilitaryaction Increasedintelligenceandsurveillanceactivities Preemptivehumanitarianactivities Morepermissiveinterrogationanddetentionpolicies Theterm"counter-terrorism"hasanarrowerconnotation,implyingthatitisdirectedatterroristactors. Terrorismresearch Terrorismresearch,alsocalledterrorismstudies,orterrorismandcounter-terrorismresearch,isaninterdisciplinaryacademicfieldwhichseekstounderstandthecausesofterrorism,howtopreventitaswellasitsimpactinthebroadestsense.Terrorismresearchcanbecarriedoutinbothmilitaryandciviliancontexts,forexamplebyresearchcentressuchastheBritishCentrefortheStudyofTerrorismandPoliticalViolence,theNorwegianCentreforViolenceandTraumaticStressStudies,andtheInternationalCentreforCounter-Terrorism(ICCT).Thereareseveralacademicjournalsdevotedtothefield,includingPerspectivesonTerrorism.[190][191] Internationalagreements Oneoftheagreementsthatpromotetheinternationallegalanti-terrorframeworkistheCodeofConductTowardsAchievingaWorldFreeofTerrorismthatwasadoptedatthe73rdsessionoftheUnitedNationsGeneralAssemblyin2018.TheCodeofConductwasinitiatedbyKazakhstanPresidentNursultanNazarbayev.Itsmaingoalistoimplementawiderangeofinternationalcommitmentstocounterterrorismandestablishabroadglobalcoalitiontowardsachievingaworldfreeofterrorismby2045.TheCodewassignedbymorethan70countries.[192] ResponseintheUnitedStates Seealso:WaronTerror X-raybackscattertechnology(AIT)machineusedbytheTSAtoscreenpassengers.AccordingtotheTSA,thisiswhattheremoteTSAagentwouldseeontheirscreen. AccordingtoareportbyDanaPriestandWilliamM.ArkininTheWashingtonPost,"Some1,271governmentorganizationsand1,931privatecompaniesworkonprogramsrelatedtocounterterrorism,homelandsecurityandintelligenceinabout10,000locationsacrosstheUnitedStates."[193] America'sthinkingonhowtodefeatradicalIslamistsissplitalongtwoverydifferentschoolsofthought.Republicans,typicallyfollowwhatisknownastheBushDoctrine,advocatethemilitarymodeloftakingthefighttotheenemyandseekingtodemocratizetheMiddleEast.Democrats,bycontrast,generallyproposethelawenforcementmodelofbettercooperationwithnationsandmoresecurityathome.[194]IntheintroductionoftheU.S.Army/MarineCorpsCounterinsurgencyFieldManual,SarahSewallstatestheneedfor"U.S.forcestomakesecuringthecivilian,ratherthandestroyingtheenemy,theirtoppriority.Thecivilianpopulationisthecenterofgravity—thedecidingfactorinthestruggle....Civiliandeathscreateanextendedfamilyofenemies—newinsurgentrecruitsorinformants—anderodesupportofthehostnation."Sewallsumsupthebook'skeypointsonhowtowinthisbattle:"Sometimes,themoreyouprotectyourforce,thelesssecureyoumaybe....Sometimes,themoreforceisused,thelesseffectiveitis....Themoresuccessfulthecounterinsurgencyis,thelessforcecanbeusedandthemoreriskmustbeaccepted....Sometimes,doingnothingisthebestreaction."[195]Thisstrategy,oftentermed"courageousrestraint",hascertainlyledtosomesuccessontheMiddleEastbattlefield.However,itdoesnotaddressthefactthatterroristsaremostlyhomegrown.[194] Massmedia CausesofdeathintheUSvsmediacoverage.Thepercentageofmediaattentionforterrorismismuchgreaterthanthepercentageofdeathscausedbyterrorism. LaTerroriste,a1910posterdepictingafemalememberoftheCombatOrganizationofthePolishSocialistPartythrowingabombataRussianofficial'scar. Massmediaexposuremaybeaprimarygoalofthosecarryingoutterrorism,toexposeissuesthatwouldotherwisebeignoredbythemedia.Someconsiderthistobemanipulationandexploitationofthemedia.[196] TheInternethascreatedanewchannelforgroupstospreadtheirmessages.[197]Thishascreatedacycleofmeasuresandcountermeasuresbygroupsinsupportofandinoppositiontoterroristmovements.TheUnitedNationshascreateditsownonlinecounter-terrorismresource.[198] Themassmediawill,onoccasion,censororganizationsinvolvedinterrorism(throughself-restraintorregulation)todiscouragefurtherterrorism.Thismayencourageorganizationstoperformmoreextremeactsofterrorismtobeshowninthemassmedia.ConverselyJamesF.Pastorexplainsthesignificantrelationshipbetweenterrorismandthemedia,andtheunderlyingbenefiteachreceivesfromtheother.[199] Thereisalwaysapointatwhichtheterroristceasestomanipulatethemediagestalt.Apointatwhichtheviolencemaywellescalate,butbeyondwhichtheterroristhasbecomesymptomaticofthemediagestaltitself.Terrorismasweordinarilyunderstanditisinnatelymedia-related.— NovelistWilliamGibson[200]FormerBritishPrimeMinisterMargaretThatcherfamouslyspokeofthecloseconnectionbetweenterrorismandthemedia,callingpublicity'theoxygenofterrorism'.[201] Outcomeofterroristgroups Howterroristgroupsend(n=268):Themostcommonendingforaterroristgroupistoconverttononviolencevianegotiations(43percent),withmostoftherestterminatedbyroutinepolicing(40percent).Groupsthatwereendedbymilitaryforceconstitutedonly7percent.[202] JonesandLibicki(2008)createdalistofalltheterroristgroupstheycouldfindthatwereactivebetween1968and2006.Theyfound648.Ofthose,136splinteredand244werestillactivein2006.[203]Oftheonesthatended,43percentconvertedtononviolentpoliticalactions,liketheIrishRepublicanArmyinNorthernIreland.Lawenforcementtookout40percent.Tenpercentwon.Only20groups,7percent,weredestroyedbymilitaryforce. Forty-twogroupsbecamelargeenoughtobelabeledaninsurgency;38ofthosehadendedby2006.Ofthose,47percentconvertedtononviolentpoliticalactors.Only5percentweretakenoutbylawenforcement.Twenty-sixpercentwon.Twenty-onepercentsuccumbedtomilitaryforce.[204]JonesandLibickiconcludedthatmilitaryforcemaybenecessarytodealwithlargeinsurgenciesbutareonlyoccasionallydecisive,becausethemilitaryistoooftenseenasabiggerthreattociviliansthantheterrorists.Toavoidthat,therulesofengagementmustbeconsciousofcollateraldamageandworktominimizeit. Anotherresearcher,AudreyCronin,listssixprimarywaysthatterroristgroupsend:[205] Captureorkillingofagroup'sleader.(Decapitation). Entryofthegroupintoalegitimatepoliticalprocess.(Negotiation). Achievementofgroupaims.(Success). Groupimplosionorlossofpublicsupport.(Failure). Defeatandeliminationthroughbruteforce.(Repression). Transitionfromterrorismintootherformsofviolence.(Reorientation). Databases Thefollowingterrorismdatabasesareorweremadepubliclyavailableforresearchpurposes,andtrackspecificactsofterrorism: GlobalTerrorismDatabase,anopen-sourcedatabasebytheUniversityofMaryland,CollegeParkonterroristeventsaroundtheworldfrom1970through2017withmorethan150,000cases. MIPTTerrorismKnowledgeBase WorldwideIncidentsTrackingSystem Tocsearch(dynamicdatabase) Thefollowingpublicreportandindexprovidesasummaryofkeyglobaltrendsandpatternsinterrorismaroundtheworld GlobalTerrorismIndex,producedannuallybytheInstituteforEconomicsandPeace Thefollowingpubliclyavailableresourcesindexelectronicandbibliographicresourcesonthesubjectofterrorism HumanSecurityGateway ThefollowingterrorismdatabasesaremaintainedinsecrecybytheUnitedStatesGovernmentforintelligenceandcounter-terrorismpurposes: TerroristIdentitiesDatamartEnvironment TerroristScreeningDatabase JonesandLibicki(2008)includesatableof268terroristgroupsactivebetween1968and2006withtheirstatusasof2006:stillactive,splintered,convertedtononviolence,removedbylawenforcementormilitary,orwon.(Thesedataarenotinaconvenientmachine-readableformatbutareavailable.) Seealso Agro-terrorism Narcoterrorism ArchivesofTerror Counter-terrorism Cyberterrorism Definitionsofterrorism DomesticterrorismintheUnitedStates Eco-terrorism Economicterrorism Economicsofterrorism Nationalistterrorism Environmentalterrorism Religiousterrorism Hindutvaterrorism Islamicterrorism Christianterrorism Jewishreligiousterrorism Listofterroristincidents Stateterrorism State-sponsoredterrorism Communistterrorism Right-wingterrorism Left-wingterrorism Fearmongering Nuclearterrorism GlobalInitiativetoCombatNuclearTerrorism GlobalTerrorismIndex HouseofTerror Crimesagainsthumanity Listofdesignatedterroristgroups Listofcausesofdeathbyrate Policestate Suicideattack VictimsofActsofTerrorMemorial WaronTerror Violentextremism Notes ^Wisnewski,J.Jeremy,ed.(2008).Torture,Terrorism,andtheUseofViolence(alsoavailableasReviewJournalofPoliticalPhilosophyVolume6,IssueNumber1).CambridgeScholarsPublishing.p. 175.ISBN 978-1-4438-0291-8. ^Stevenson,Angus,ed.(2010).OxforddictionaryofEnglish(3rd ed.).NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-957112-3. ^Halibozek,EdwardP.;Jones,Andy;Kovacich,GeraldL.(2008).Thecorporatesecurityprofessional'shandbookonterrorism(illustrated ed.).Elsevier(Butterworth-Heinemann).pp. 4–5.ISBN 978-0-7506-8257-2.RetrievedDecember17,2016. ^abcdMackey,Robert(November20,2009)."CanSoldiersBeVictimsofTerrorism?".TheNewYorkTimes.RetrievedJanuary11,2010.Terrorismisthedeliberatekillingofinnocentpeople,atrandom,inordertospreadfearthroughawholepopulationandforcethehandofitspoliticalleaders. ^abSinclair,SamuelJustin;Antonius,Daniel(2012).ThePsychologyofTerrorismFears.OxfordUniversityPress,US.p. 14.ISBN 978-0-19-538811-4. ^abWhite,JonathanR.(January1,2016).TerrorismandHomelandSecurity.CengageLearning.p. 3.ISBN 978-1-305-63377-3. ^abcdeHeryanto,Ariel(April7,2006).StateTerrorismandPoliticalIdentityinIndonesia:FatallyBelonging.Routledge.p. 161.ISBN 978-1-134-19569-5. ^abRuthven,Malise;Nanji,Azim(April24,2017).HistoricalAtlasofIslam.HarvardUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-674-01385-8. ^"Terrorism".EncyclopædiaBritannica.p. 3.RetrievedSeptember8,2020. ^abMajoran,Andrew(August1,2014)."TheIllusionofWar:IsTerrorismaCriminalActoranActofWar?".MackenzieInstitute.RetrievedApril24,2020. ^abcJennyTeichman(1989)."HowtoDefineTerrorism".Philosophy.64(250):505–517.doi:10.1017/S0031819100044260.JSTOR 3751606. ^Eviatar,Daphne(June13,2013)."Is'Terrorism'aWarCrimeTriablebyMilitaryCommission?WhoKnows?".HuffPost.RetrievedApril29,2017. ^"GlobalTerrorismIndex2015"(PDF).InstituteforEconomicsandPeace.p. 33.Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)onFebruary7,2019.RetrievedJuly19,2016. ^abFine,Jonathan(2010)."PoliticalandPhilologicalOriginsoftheTerm'Terrorism'fromtheAncientNearEasttoOurTimes".MiddleEasternStudies.46(2):271–288.doi:10.1080/00263201003619927.JSTOR 20720662.S2CID 143268246. ^Palmer,R.R.(2014)."TheFrenchDirectoryBetweenExtremes".TheAgeoftheDemocraticRevolution:APoliticalHistoryofEuropeandAmerica,1760–1800.TheAgeoftheDemocraticRevolution.PrincetonUniversityPress.pp. 544–567.ISBN 9780691161280.JSTOR j.ctt5hhrg5.29. ^Kellner,Douglas(April2004)."9/11,spectaclesofterror,andmediamanipulation:AcritiqueofJihadistandBushmediapolitics".CriticalDiscourseStudies.1(1):41–64.doi:10.1080/17405900410001674515.eISSN 1740-5912.ISSN 1740-5904. ^abKenDuncan(2011)."ABlastfromthePastLessonsfromaLargelyForgottenIncidentofState-SponsoredTerrorism".PerspectivesonTerrorism.5(1):3–21.JSTOR 26298499. ^Crawford,Joseph(September12,2013).GothicFictionandtheInventionofTerrorism:ThePoliticsandAestheticsofFearintheAgeoftheReignofTerror.BloomsburyPublishing.ISBN 978-1-4725-0912-3. ^Houen,Alex(September12,2002)."Introduction".TerrorismandModernLiterature:FromJosephConradtoCiaranCarson.OUPOxford.ISBN 978-0-19-154198-8. ^Thackrah,JohnRichard(2013).DictionaryofTerrorism.Routledge.ISBN 978-1-135-16595-6. ^EdmundBurke–ToTheEarlFitzwilliam(Christmas,1795.)In:EdmundBurke,SelectWorksofEdmundBurke,vol.3(LettersonaRegicidePeace)(1795).ThisInternetversioncontainstwo,mingled,indicationsofpagenumbers:onewithsinglebracketslike[260],onewithdoublebracketslike[[309]].Burkelengthilyintroduceshisviewon'thispresentDirectorygovernment',andthenwritesonpage[359]:"ThosewhoarbitrarilyerectedthenewbuildingoutoftheoldmaterialsoftheirownConvention,wereobligedtosendforanArmytosupporttheirwork.(...)Atlength,afteraterriblestruggle,theTroopsprevailedovertheCitizens.(...)ThispoweristolastaslongastheParisiansthinkproper.(...)[315]Tosecurethemfurther,theyhaveastrongcorpsofirregulars,readyarmed.ThousandsofthoseHell-houndscalledTerrorists,whomtheyhadshutupinPrisonontheirlastRevolution,astheSatellitesofTyranny,areletlooseonthepeople.(...)" ^Peleg,Ilan(1988)."TerrorismintheMiddleEast:TheCaseoftheArab-IsraeliConflict".InStohl,Michael(ed.).ThePoliticsofTerrorism(Third ed.).CRCPress.p. 531.ISBN 978-0-8247-7814-9.RetrievedFebruary14,2019. ^Crenshaw,Martha(2010).TerrorisminContext.PennStatePress.p. xiii.ISBN 978-0-271-04442-2.RetrievedFebruary14,2019. ^Shabad,Goldie;LleraRamo,FranciscoJose(2010)."PoliticalViolenceinaDemocraticState:BasqueTerrorisminSpain".InCrenshaw,Martha(ed.).TerrorisminContext.ISBN 9780271044422.RetrievedFebruary14,2019. ^Corrado,RaymondR.;Evans,Rebecca(January29,1988)."EthnicandIdeologicalTerrorisminWesternEurope".InStohl,Michael(ed.).ThePoliticsofTerrorism(Third ed.).p. 373.ISBN 9780824778149.RetrievedFebruary14,2019. ^Khaled,Leila(September18,1970)."ThisisYourNewCaptainSpeaking".Life.p. 34.RetrievedFebruary14,2019. ^CommitteeontheJudiciary,TerroristicActivity:Internationalterrorism;LesterA.Sobel,PoliticalTerrorism;LauranPaine,TheTerrorists(1975);WalterLaqueur,GuerrillaWarfare:AHistoricalandCriticalStudy;PaulWilkinson,Terrorismversusliberaldemocracy:theproblemsofresponse;AlbertParry,Terrorism:fromRobespierretoArafat(1976);OvidDemaris,BrothersinBlood:TheInternationalTerroristNetwork(1977);YonahAlexander,DavidCarltonandPaulWilkinson,Terrorism:TheoryandPractice;ChristopherDobsonandRonaldPayne,TheWeaponsofTerror:InternationalTerrorismatWork;BrianMichaelJenkins,TheTerroristMindsetandTerroristDecisionmaking(1979) ^Faimau,Gabriel(July26,2013).Socio-CulturalConstructionofRecognition:TheDiscursiveRepresentationofIslamandMuslimsintheBritishChristianNewsMedia.CambridgeScholarsPublishing.p. 27.ISBN 978-1-4438-5104-6. ^Campo,JuanEduardo(January1,2009).EncyclopediaofIslam.InfobasePublishing.p. xxii.ISBN 978-1-4381-2696-8. ^Örtenwall,Per;Almgren,Ola;Deverell,Edward(2003)."ThebombexplosioninMyyrmanni,Finland2002".InternationalJournalofDisasterMedicine.1(2):120.doi:10.1080/15031430310029062.ISSN 1503-1438. ^abArieW.KruglanskiandShiraFishmanCurrentDirectionsinPsychologicalScienceVol.15,No.1(Feb.2006),pp.45–48 ^BruceHoffman,InsideTerrorism,2ed.,ColumbiaUniversityPress,2006,p.34. ^Aust,Anthony(2010).HandbookofInternationalLaw(2nd ed.).CambridgeUniversityPress.p. 265.ISBN 978-0-521-13349-4. ^"UNReform".UnitedNations.March21,2005.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonApril27,2007.RetrievedJuly11,2008.Thesecondpartofthereport,entitled"FreedomfromFearbacksthedefinitionofterrorism–anissuesodivisiveagreementonithaslongeludedtheworldcommunity–asanyaction"intendedtocausedeathorseriousbodilyharmtociviliansornon-combatantswiththepurposeofintimidatingapopulationorcompellingagovernmentoraninternationalorganizationtodoorabstainfromdoinganyact" ^Hoffman(1998),p.32,SeereviewinTheNewYorkTimesInsideTerrorism. ^"Radicalisation,De-Radicalisation,Counter-Radicalisation:AConceptualDiscussionandLiteratureReview".TheInternationalCentreforCounter-Terrorism–TheHague(ICCT).March27,2013.RetrievedSeptember6,2016. ^AngusMartyn,TheRightofSelf-DefenceunderInternationalLaw-theResponsetotheTerroristAttacksof11September,AustralianLawandBillsDigestGroup,ParliamentofAustraliaWebSite,February12,2002.ArchivedFebruary16,2012,attheWaybackMachine ^Diaz-Paniagua(2008),Negotiatingterrorism:ThenegotiationdynamicsoffourUNcounter-terrorismtreaties,1997–2005,p.47. ^1994UnitedNationsDeclarationonMeasurestoEliminateInternationalTerrorismannextoUNGeneralAssemblyresolution49/60,"MeasurestoEliminateInternationalTerrorism",ofDecember9,1994,UNDoc.A/Res/60/49. ^"22U.S.Code§ 2656f–Annualcountryreportsonterrorism".LII/LegalInformationInstitute. ^"18U.S.Code§2331-Definitions".LII/LegalInformationInstitute. ^Bockstette,Carsten(2008)."JihadistTerroristUseofStrategicCommunicationManagementTechniques"(PDF).GeorgeC.MarshallCenterOccasionalPaperSeries(20).ISSN 1863-6039.RetrievedJanuary1,2009. ^Juergensmeyer,Mark(2000).TerrorintheMindofGod.UniversityofCaliforniaPress.pp. 125–135.ISBN 9780520223011. ^Bardach,AnnLouis;Rohter,Larry(July13,1998)."ABomber'sTale:DecadesofIntrigue".TheNewYorkTimes. ^"NumberofTerroristAttacks,Fatalities".TheWashingtonPost.June12,2009.RetrievedJanuary11,2010.Thenation'sdeadliestterroristacts–attacksdesignedtoachieveapoliticalgoal ^"TerrorismintheUnitedStates1999"(PDF).FederalBureauofInvestigation.Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)onJuly9,2008.RetrievedJuly11,2008. ^"/IraqaccusesUSofstateterrorism".BBCNews.February20,2002.RetrievedJanuary11,2010.IraqhasaccusedtheUnitedStatesofstateterrorismamidsignsthatthewarofwordsbetweenthetwocountriesisheatingup. ^Mendelsohn,Barak(January2005)."Sovereigntyunderattack:theinternationalsocietymeetstheAlQaedanetwork(abstract)".CambridgeJournals.RetrievedJanuary11,2010.Thisarticleexaminesthecomplexrelationsbetweenaviolentnon-stateactor,theAlQaedanetwork,andorderintheinternationalsystem.AlQaedaposesachallengetothesovereigntyofspecificstatesbutitalsochallengestheinternationalsocietyasawhole. ^Khan,Ali(October8,2006)."ATheoryofInternationalTerrorism".ConnecticutLawReview.19:945–viaSocialScienceResearchNetwork. ^FelineFreier,Luisa;CastilloJara,Soledad(January13,2021).""Terruqueo"andPeru'sFearoftheLeft".AmericasQuarterly.RetrievedNovember18,2021. ^"Quéesel"terruqueo"enPerúycómoinfluyeenladisputapresidencialentreFujimoriyCastillo".BBCNews(inSpanish).RetrievedNovember18,2021. ^Asensio,Raúl;Camacho,Gabriela;González,Natalia;Grompone,Romeo;PajueloTeves,Ramón;PeñaJimenez,Omayra;Moscoso,Macarena;Vásquez,Yerel;SosaVillagarcia,Paolo(August2021).ElProfe:CómoPedroCastilloseconvirtióenpresidentedelPerúyquépasaráacontinuación(inSpanish)(1 ed.).Lima,Peru:InstituteofPeruvianStudies.pp. 13–24.ISBN 978-612-326-084-2.RetrievedNovember17,2021. ^abReynolds,Paul;quotingDavidHannay;FormerUKambassador(September14,2005)."UNstaggersonroadtoreform".BBCNews.RetrievedJanuary11,2010.Thiswouldendtheargumentthatoneman'sterroristisanotherman'sfreedomfighter ... ^abRodin,David(2006)."Terrorism".InE.Craig(Ed.),RoutledgeEncyclopediaofPhilosophy.London:Routledge. ^Steinfels,Peter(March1,2003)."Beliefs;Thejust-wartradition,itslast-resortcriterionandthedebateonaninvasionofIraq".TheNewYorkTimes.RetrievedJanuary11,2010.ForthoselikeProfessorWalzerwhovaluethejust-wartraditionasadisciplinedwaytothinkaboutthemoralityofwar ... ^Hoffman,Bruce(1998)."InsideTerrorism".ColumbiaUniversityPress.p. 32.ISBN 0-231-11468-0.RetrievedJanuary11,2010.Googlecachedcopy ^Hoffman,Bruce(1998)."InsideTerrorism".TheNewYorkTimes.RetrievedJanuary11,2010. ^Bonner,Raymond(November1,1998)."GettingAttention:Ascholar'shistoricalandpoliticalsurveyofterrorismfindsthatitworks".TheNewYorkTimes:Books.RetrievedJanuary11,2010.InsideTerrorismfallsintothecategoryof'mustread,'atleastforanyonewhowantstounderstandhowwecanrespondtointernationalactsofterror. ^MalayanPeople'sAnti-JapaneseArmyArchivedMarch24,2007,attheWaybackMachineBritannicaConcise. ^DrChrisClark"MalayanEmergency,16June1948".ArchivedfromtheoriginalonJune8,2007.,June16,2003. ^RonaldReagan,speechtoNationalConservativePoliticalActionConferenceArchivedAugust20,2006,attheWaybackMachineMarch8,1985.OntheSpartacusEducationalwebsite. ^"PresidentMeetswithAfghanInterimAuthorityChairman".Georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov.January29,2002.RetrievedAugust10,2009. ^PresidentDiscussesProgressinWaronTerrorismtoNationalGuardWhiteHousewebsiteFebruary9,2006. ^"AnunbiasedlookatterrorisminAfghanistan[in2009]revealsthatmanyofthese'terrorists'individualsorgroupswereonce'freedomfighters'strugglingagainsttheSovietsduringthe1980s."(Chouvy,Pierre-Arnaud(2009).Opium:UncoveringthePoliticsofthePoppy(illustrated,reprint ed.).HarvardUniversityPress.p. 119.ISBN 978-0-674-05134-8.) ^SudhaRamachandranDeathbehindthewheelinIraqAsianTimes,November12,2004,"Insurgentgroupsthatusesuicideattacksthereforedonotliketheirattackstobedescribedassuicideterrorism.Theyprefertousetermslike"martyrdom ..." ^AlexPerryHowMuchtoTiptheTerrorist?Time,September26,2005."TheTamilTigerswoulddisputethattag,ofcourse.Likeotherguerrillasandsuicidebombers,theyprefertheterm"freedomfighters". ^Terrorism:concepts,causes,andconflictresolutionGeorgeMasonUniversityInstituteforConflictAnalysisandResolution,PrintedbytheDefenseThreatReductionAgency,FortBelvoir,Virginia,January2003. ^Quinney,Nigel;Coyne,A.Heather(2011).Peacemaker'sToolkitTalkingtoGroupsthatUseTerrorism(PDF).UnitedStatesInstituteofPeace.ISBN 978-1-60127-072-6.RetrievedDecember11,2016. ^TheodoreP.SetoTheMoralityofTerrorismIncludesalistinTheTimespublishedonJuly23,1946,whichweredescribedasJewishterroristactions,includingthoselaunchedbyIrgun,ofwhichBeginwasaleadingmember. ^BBCNews:Profiles:MenachemBeginBBCwebsite"UnderBegin'scommand,theundergroundterroristgroupIrguncarriedoutnumerousactsofviolence." ^Ahmad,Eqbal(January2002)."Straighttalkonterrorism".MonthlyReview.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonFebruary5,2012.RetrievedSeptember10,2006....includingMenachemBegin,appearingin"Wanted"posterssaying,"Terrorists,rewardthismuch."ThehighestrewardIhaveseenofferedwas100,000BritishpoundsfortheheadofMenachemBegin. ^LordDesaiHansard,HouseofLordsArchivedMarch11,2007,attheWaybackMachineSeptember3,1998 :Column72,"However,JomoKenyatta,NelsonMandelaandMenachemBegin–togivejustthreeexamples–werealldenouncedasterroristsbutallprovedtobesuccessfulpoliticalleadersoftheircountriesandgoodfriendsoftheUnitedKingdom." ^BBCNEWS:World:Americas:UNreformsreceivemixedresponseBBCwebsite"Ofallgroupsactiveinrecenttimes,theANCperhapsrepresentsbestthetraditionaldichotomousviewofarmedstruggle.Onceregardedbywesterngovernmentsasaterroristgroup,itnowformsthelegitimate,electedgovernmentofSouthAfrica,withNelsonMandelaoneoftheworld'sgenuinelyiconicfigures." ^BBCNEWS:World:Africa:Profile:NelsonMandelaBBCwebsite"NelsonMandelaremainsoneoftheworld'smostreveredstatesman". ^Beckford,Martin(November30,2010)."HuntWikiLeaksfounderlikeal-QaedaandTalibanLeaders".TheDailyTelegraph.London.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonJanuary11,2022.RetrievedJanuary7,2011. 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^Stohl,Michael(1988)."TerriblebeyondEndurance?TheForeignPolicyofStateTerrorism".InternationalStudiesAssociation,Atlanta. ^Stohl,Michael(1984)."TheStateasTerrorist:TheDynamicsofGovernmentalViolenceandRepression".InternationalStudiesAssociation,Atlanta.p. 49. ^"The'NoRent'Manifesto.;TextoftheDocumentIssuedbytheLandLeague".TheNewYorkTimes.August2,2009.RetrievedAugust10,2009. ^NicolasWerth,KarelBartošek,Jean-LouisPanné,Jean-LouisMargolin,AndrzejPaczkowski,StéphaneCourtois,TheBlackBookofCommunism:Crimes,Terror,Repression,HarvardUniversityPress,1999,hardcover,858pp.,ISBN 0-674-07608-7 ^Kisangani,E.;Nafziger,E.Wayne(2007)."ThePoliticalEconomyofStateTerror".DefenceandPeaceEconomics.18(5):405–414.CiteSeerX 10.1.1.579.1472.doi:10.1080/10242690701455433.S2CID 155020309. ^DeathbyGovernmentbyR.J.RummelNewBrunswick,NJ:TransactionPublishers,1994.Onlinelinks:[3][4][5] ^NoLessonsLearnedfromtheHolocaust?,BarbaraHarff,2003.ArchivedOctober30,2007,attheWaybackMachine ^Blakeley,Ruth(2009).StateTerrorismandNeoliberalism:TheNorthintheSouth.Routledge.pp. 4,20-23,88.ISBN 978-0-415-68617-4. ^Valentino,BenjaminA.(2005).FinalSolutions:MassKillingandGenocideinthe20thCentury.CornellUniversityPress.p. 27.ISBN 978-0-8014-7273-2. ^Bevins,Vincent(2020).TheJakartaMethod:Washington'sAnticommunistCrusadeandtheMassMurderProgramthatShapedOurWorld.PublicAffairs.p. 238.ISBN 978-1541742406. ^Simpson,Bradley(2010).EconomistswithGuns:AuthoritarianDevelopmentandU.S.–IndonesianRelations,1960–1968.StanfordUniversityPress.p. 193.ISBN 978-0-8047-7182-5.Washingtondideverythinginitspowertoencourageandfacilitatethearmy-ledmassacreofallegedPKImembers,andU.S.officialsworriedonlythatthekillingoftheparty'sunarmedsupportersmightnotgofarenough,permittingSukarnotoreturntopowerandfrustratethe[Johnson]Administration'semergingplansforapost-SukarnoIndonesia.Thiswasefficaciousterror,anessentialbuildingblockoftheneoliberalpoliciesthattheWestwouldattempttoimposeonIndonesiaafterSukarno'souster 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^Bianchi,R(2006)."Tourismandtheglobalisationoffear:Analysingthepoliticsofriskand(in)securityinglobaltravel".TourismandHospitalityResearch.7(1):64–74.doi:10.1057/palgrave.thr.6050028.S2CID 154888544. ^Floyd,M.etal.(2003)."TheEffectsofRiskPerceptiononIntentiontoTravelintheAftermathofSeptember11,2001".InSafetyandSecurityinTourism:relationships,ManagementandMarketing,(Eds)Hall,M.Timothy,D.yDuval,T..NewYork:HaworthHospitalityPress ^Brun,W.;Wolff,K.;Larsen,S.(2011)."Touristworriesafterterroristattacks:Reportfromafieldexperiment".ScandinavianJournalofHospitalityandTourism.11(3):387–394.doi:10.1080/15022250.2011.593365.S2CID 143842574. ^abcdDetectionofTerroristFinancingArchivedAugust14,2009,attheWaybackMachine,U.S.NationalCreditUnionAdministration(NCUA),2002. ^Lott,Jeremy(October6,2004)."TrippedUp".ReasonMagazine.RetrievedJanuary11,2010.andbeforetheSovietUnionfell,terroristorganizationswerefundingthemselvesthroughsubsidiesfromCommunistgovernments ^"AimsandactivitiesoftheSternGroupinPalestine".ResearchandAnalysisBranch.2717(R&N).December1,1944. ^GerbenJanGerbrandyclaimingthatterroristnetworkshuntwildlifeforfundingthemselvesArchivedFebruary22,2014,attheWaybackMachine ^"Syria'stopIslamistandjihadistgroups".France24. ^"TerroristFinancing".TheFinancialActionTaskForce.RetrievedJanuary7,2011. ^Gage,Beverly(2009).TheDayWallStreetExploded:AStoryofAmericainitsFirstAgeofTerror.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.p. 1.ISBN 978-0-19-975928-6. ^Suicidebombingsarethemosteffectiveterroristactinthisregard.Seethefollowingworks: Hoffman,Bruce(June2003)."TheLogicofSuicideTerrorism".AtlanticMonthly.291(5).pp. 40–47. 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References Spaaij,Ramon(2012).UnderstandingLoneWolfTerrorism:GlobalPatterns,MotivationsandPrevention. PerspectivesonTerrorism'sBibliography:RootCausesofTerrorism.2017. Furtherreading Bakker,Edwin.ForecastingtheUnpredictable:AReviewofForecastsonTerrorism2000–2012(InternationalCentreforCounter-Terrorism–TheHague,2014) Bowie,NeilG.(April2021)."40TerrorismDatabasesandDataSets:ANewInventory"(PDF).PerspectivesonTerrorism.LeidenUniversity.XV(2).ISSN 2334-3745.Laysummary. Burleigh,Michael.Bloodandrage:aculturalhistoryofterrorism.Harper,2009. Chaliand,GérardandArnaudBlin,eds.Thehistoryofterrorism:fromantiquitytoalQaeda.UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2007. Coates,SusanW.,Rosenthal,Jane,andSchechter,DanielS.September11:TraumaandHumanBonds.NewYork:TaylorandFrancis,Inc.,2003. Crenshaw,Martha,ed.Terrorismincontext.PennsylvaniaStateUniversityPress,1995. Jones,SethG.;Libicki,MartinC.(2008),HowTerroristGroupsEnd:LessonsforCounteringalQa'ida(PDF),RANDCorporation,ISBN 978-0-8330-4465-5 Hennigfeld,Ursula/Packard,Stephan,ed.,Abschiedvon9/11?DistanznahmezurKatastrophe.Berlin:Frank&Timme,2013. Hennigfeld,Ursula,ed.,PoetikendesTerrors.Narrativedes11.September2001iminterkulturellenVergleich.Heidelberg:Winter,2014. Jones,Sidney.Terrorism:mythsandfacts.Jakarta:InternationalCrisisGroup,2013. Land,Isaac,ed.,Enemiesofhumanity :thenineteenth-centurywaronterrorism.PalgraveMacmillan,2008. Lee,Newton.CounterterrorismandCybersecurity:TotalInformationAwareness(2ndEdition).NewYork:Springer,2015.ISBN 978-3-319-17243-9 Lutz,JamesandBrendaLutz.Terrorism :originsandevolution.PalgraveMacmillan,2005 Miller,MartinA.Thefoundationsofmodernterrorism :state,societyandthedynamicsofpoliticalviolence.CambridgeUniversityPress,2013. Nairn,Tom;James,Paul(2005).GlobalMatrix:Nationalism,GlobalismandState-Terrorism.LondonandNewYork:PlutoPress. Neria,Yuval,Gross,Raz,Marshall,RandallD.,andSusser,Ezra.September11,2001:Treatment,ResearchandPublicMentalHealthintheWakeofaTerroristAttack.NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,2006. Schmid,AlexP.(November2020).HandbookofTerrorismPreventionandPreparedness.InternationalCentreforCounter-Terrorism.doi:10.19165/2020.6.011(inactiveOctober31,2021).ISBN 9789090339771.ISSN 2468-0486.CS1maint:DOIinactiveasofOctober2021(link)Anopen-accesspublication,issuedsinceNovember2020ontheInternationalCentreforCounter-Terrorism(ICCT)website,withachapterpublishedeachweek. Stern,Jessica.TheUltimateTerrorists.FirstHarvardUniversityPressPbk.ed.Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversityPress,2000,cop.1995.214p.ISBN 0-674-00394-2 Tausch,Arno,EstimatesontheGlobalThreatofIslamicStateTerrorismintheFaceofthe2015ParisandCopenhagenAttacks(December11,2015).MiddleEastReviewofInternationalAffairs,RubinCenter,ResearchinInternationalAffairs,IdcHerzliya,Israel,Vol.19,No.1(Spring2015). Terrorism,Law&Democracy:10yearsafter9/11,CanadianInstitutefortheAdministrationofJustice.ISBN 978-2-9809728-7-4. Externallinks Wikiquotehasquotationsrelatedto:Terrorism WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoTerrorism. LookupterrorisminWiktionary,thefreedictionary. LibraryresourcesaboutTerrorism Onlinebooks Resourcesinyourlibrary UnitedNations:ConventionsonTerrorism UnitedNationsOfficeonDrugsandCrime:"Conventionsagainstterrorism".ArchivedfromtheoriginalonAugust5,2007. UNODC–UnitedNationsOfficeonDrugsandCrime–TerrorismPrevention Terrorismandinternationalhumanitarianlaw,InternationalCommitteeoftheRedCross UKCounterTerrorismPolicing vteTerrorismMainarticles Definitions Historyofterrorism Internationalconventions Anti-terrorismlegislation Counter-terrorism WaronTerror Byideology Communist Environmentalterrorism Ethnicviolence Narcoterrorism Nationalist Religious (Christian Islamic Jewish) Typesandtactics Agro-terrorism Aircrafthijacking Bioterrorism Carbombing Environmental Nuclear Piracy Propagandaofthedeed Proxybomb Suicideattack Stateinvolvement Stateterrorism State-sponsoredterrorism Bycountry Iran Pakistan Russia SriLanka UnitedStates Organisation Clandestinecellsystem Financing Front Lonewolf Trainingcamp Historical RedTerror ReignofTerror WhiteTerror Lists Charitiesaccusedoftiestoterrorism Designatedterroristorganizations Incidents Islamicterroristattacks Memorialsandmuseums HouseofTerror TopographyofTerror VictimsofActsofTerrorMemorial 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2007Lebanonconflict al-QaedainsurgencyinYemen Seealso AbuGhraibtortureandprisonerabuse Axisofevil BushDoctrine ClashofCivilizations ColdWar CombatantStatusReviewTribunal Criticismofthewaronterror CIAblacksites KillingofOsamabinLaden Enhancedinterrogationtechniques TortureMemos Extrajudicialprisoners Extraordinaryrendition GuantanamoBaydetentioncamp IranianRevolution Islamicterrorism Islamism MilitaryCommissionsActof2006 MilitaryCommissionsActof2009 NorthKoreaandweaponsofmassdestruction TerroristSurveillanceProgram OperationNobleEagle OperationEagleAssist Pakistan'srole PatriotAct President'sSurveillanceProgram ProtectAmericaActof2007 September11attacks StateSponsorsofTerrorism Targetedkilling TargetedKillinginInternationalLaw TargetedKillings:LawandMoralityinanAsymmetricalWorld Unitaryexecutivetheory Unlawfulcombatant WithdrawalofUnitedStatestroopsfromAfghanistan(2011–2016) WithdrawalofUnitedStatestroopsfromIraq(2007–2011) CAGE Category Commons AuthoritycontrolGeneral 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