Neurogenesis - Wikipedia

Neurogenesis is the process by which nervous system cells, the neurons, are produced by neural stem cells (NSCs). It occurs in all species of animals except ... Neurogenesis FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Generationofcellswithinthenervoussystem NeurogenesisAneurosphereofneuralstemcellsinratembryospreadsoutintoasinglelayerofcells.A)Neurosphereofsubventricularzonecellsaftertwodaysinculture.B)Showstheneurosphereatfourdaysincultureandcellsmigratingaway.C)Cellsattheperipheryoftheneurospheremostlyhavingextendingprocesses.IdentifiersMeSHD055495Anatomicalterminology[editonWikidata] Neurogenesisistheprocessbywhichnervoussystemcells,theneurons,areproducedbyneuralstemcells(NSCs).Itoccursinallspeciesofanimalsexcepttheporifera(sponges)andplacozoans.[1]TypesofNSCsincludeneuroepithelialcells(NECs),radialglialcells(RGCs),basalprogenitors(BPs),intermediateneuronalprecursors(INPs),subventricularzoneastrocytes,andsubgranularzoneradialastrocytes,amongothers.[1] Neurogenesisismostactiveduringembryonicdevelopmentandisresponsibleforproducingallthevarioustypesofneuronsoftheorganism,butitcontinuesthroughoutadultlifeinavarietyoforganisms.[1]Onceborn,neuronsdonotdivide(seemitosis),andmanywilllivethelifespanoftheanimal.[2] Contents 1Neurogenesisinmammals 1.1Developmentalneurogenesis 1.1.1Epigeneticmodification 1.2Adultneurogenesis 1.2.1Subventricularzone 1.2.2Hippocampus 2Neurogenesisinotherorganisms 3Substance-inducedneurogenesis 4Otherfindings 5Seealso 6References 7Externallinks Neurogenesisinmammals[edit] Developmentalneurogenesis[edit] Duringembryonicdevelopment,themammaliancentralnervoussystem(CNS;brainandspinalcord)isderivedfromtheneuraltube,whichcontainsNSCsthatwilllatergenerateneurons.[2]However,neurogenesisdoesn'tbeginuntilasufficientpopulationofNSCshasbeenachieved.Theseearlystemcellsarecalledneuroepithelialcells(NEC)s,butsoontakeonahighlyelongatedradialmorphologyandarethenknownasradialglialcells(RGC)s.[2]RGCsaretheprimarystemcellsofthemammalianCNS,andresideintheembryonicventricularzone,whichliesadjacenttothecentralfluid-filledcavity(ventricularsystem)oftheneuraltube.[3][4]FollowingRGCproliferation,neurogenesisinvolvesafinalcelldivisionoftheparentRGC,whichproducesoneoftwopossibleoutcomes.First,thismaygenerateasubclassofneuronalprogenitorscalledintermediateneuronalprecursors(INP)s,whichwilldivideoneormoretimestoproduceneurons.Alternatively,daughterneuronsmaybeproduceddirectly.Neuronsdonotimmediatelyformneuralcircuitsthroughthegrowthofaxonsanddendrites.Instead,newbornneuronsmustfirstmigratelongdistancestotheirfinaldestinations,maturingandfinallygeneratingneuralcircuitry.Forexample,neuronsbornintheventricularzonemigrateradiallytothecorticalplate,whichiswhereneuronsaccumulatetoformthecerebralcortex.[3][4]Thus,thegenerationofneuronsoccursinaspecifictissuecompartmentor'neurogenicniche'occupiedbytheirparentstemcells. Therateofneurogenesisandthetypeofneurongenerated(broadly,excitatoryorinhibitory)areprincipallydeterminedbymolecularandgeneticfactors.ThesefactorsnotablyincludetheNotchsignalingpathway,andmanygeneshavebeenlinkedtoNotchpathwayregulation.[5][6]Thegenesandmechanismsinvolvedinregulatingneurogenesisarethesubjectofintensiveresearchinacademic,pharmaceutical,andgovernmentsettingsworldwide. TheamountoftimerequiredtogeneratealltheneuronsoftheCNSvarieswidelyacrossmammals,andbrainneurogenesisisnotalwayscompletebythetimeofbirth.[2]Forexample,miceundergocorticalneurogenesisfromaboutembryonicday(post-conceptionalday)(E)11toE17,andarebornataboutE19.5.[7]FerretsarebornatE42,althoughtheirperiodofcorticalneurogenesisdoesnotenduntilafewdaysafterbirth.[8]Incontrast,neurogenesisinhumansgenerallybeginsaroundgestationalweek(GW)10andendsaroundGW25withbirthaboutGW38–40.[9] Epigeneticmodification[edit] Asembryonicdevelopmentofthemammalianbrainunfolds,neuralprogenitorandstemcellsswitchfromproliferativedivisionstodifferentiativedivisions.Thisprogressionleadstothegenerationofneuronsandgliathatpopulatecorticallayers.Epigeneticmodificationsplayakeyroleinregulatinggeneexpressioninthecellulardifferentiationofneuralstemcells.EpigeneticmodificationsincludeDNAcytosinemethylationtoform5-methylcytosineand5-methylcytosinedemethylation.[10][11]Thesemodificationsarecriticalforcellfatedeterminationinthedevelopingandadultmammalianbrain. DNAcytosinemethylationiscatalyzedbyDNAmethyltransferases(DNMTs).MethylcytosinedemethylationiscatalyzedinseveralstagesbyTETenzymesthatcarryoutoxidativereactions(e.g.5-methylcytosineto5-hydroxymethylcytosine)andenzymesoftheDNAbaseexcisionrepair(BER)pathway.[10] Adultneurogenesis[edit] Mainarticle:Adultneurogenesis Neurogenesiscanbeacomplexprocessinsomemammals.Inrodentsforexample,neuronsinthecentralnervoussystemarisefromthreetypesofneuralstemandprogenitorcells:neuroepithelialcells,radialglialcellsandbasalprogenitors,whichgothroughthreemaindivisions:symmetricproliferativedivision;asymmetricneurogenicdivision;andsymmetricneurogenicdivision.Outofallthethreecelltypes,neuroepithelialcellsthatpassthroughneurogenicdivisionshaveamuchmoreextendedcellcyclethanthosethatgothroughproliferativedivisions,suchastheradialglialcellsandbasalprogenitors.[12]Inthehuman,adultneurogenesishasbeenshowntooccuratlowlevelscomparedwithdevelopment,andinonlytworegionsofthebrain:theadultsubventricularzone(SVZ)ofthelateralventricles,andthedentategyrusofthehippocampus;[13][14][15]althoughmorerecent(2020)researchconfirmsadultneurogenesisthroughoutthebrain. Subventricularzone[edit] Inmanymammals,includingrodents,theolfactorybulbisabrainregioncontainingcellsthatdetectsmell,featuringintegrationofadult-bornneurons,whichmigratefromtheSVZofthestriatumtotheolfactorybulbthroughtherostralmigratorystream(RMS).[13][16]Themigratingneuroblastsintheolfactorybulbbecomeinterneuronsthathelpthebraincommunicatewiththesesensorycells.Themajorityofthoseinterneuronsareinhibitorygranulecells,butasmallnumberareperiglomerularcells.IntheadultSVZ,theprimaryneuralstemcellsareSVZastrocytesratherthanRGCs.Mostoftheseadultneuralstemcellsliedormantintheadult,butinresponsetocertainsignals,thesedormantcells,orBcells,gothroughaseriesofstages,firstproducingproliferatingcells,orCcells.TheCcellsthenproduceneuroblasts,orAcells,thatwillbecomeneurons.[14] Hippocampus[edit] Significantneurogenesisalsooccursduringadulthoodinthehippocampusofmanymammals,fromrodentstosomeprimates,althoughitsexistenceinadulthumansisdebated.[17][18]Thehippocampusplaysacrucialroleintheformationofnewdeclarativememories,andithasbeentheorizedthatthereasonhumaninfantscannotformdeclarativememoriesisbecausetheyarestillundergoingextensiveneurogenesisinthehippocampusandtheirmemory-generatingcircuitsareimmature.[19]Manyenvironmentalfactors,suchasexercise,stress,andantidepressantshavebeenreportedtochangetherateofneurogenesiswithinthehippocampusofrodents.[20][21]Someevidenceindicatespostnatalneurogenesisinthehumanhippocampusdecreasessharplyinnewbornsforthefirstyearortwoafterbirth,droppingto"undetectablelevelsinadults."[17] Neurogenesisinotherorganisms[edit] NeurogenesishasbeenbestcharacterizedinmodelorganismssuchasthefruitflyDrosophilamelanogaster.Neurogenesisintheseorganismsoccurinthemedullacortexregionoftheiropticlobes.Theseorganismscanrepresentamodelforthegeneticanalysisofadultneurogenesisandbrainregeneration.Therehasbeenresearchthatdiscusshowthestudyof“damage-responsiveprogenitorcells”inDrosophilacanhelptoidentifyregenerativeneurogenesisandhowtofindnewwaystoincreasebrainrebuilding.Recently,astudywasmadetoshowhow“low-leveladultneurogenesis”hasbeenidentifiedinDrosophila,specificallyinthemedullacortexregion,inwhichneuralprecursorscouldincreasetheproductionofnewneurons,makingneurogenesisoccur.[22][23][24]InDrosophila,Notchsignalingwasfirstdescribed,controllingacell-to-cellsignalingprocesscalledlateralinhibition,inwhichneuronsareselectivelygeneratedfromepithelialcells.[25][26]Insomevertebrates,regenerativeneurogenesishasalsobeenshowntooccur.[27] Substance-inducedneurogenesis[edit] DMT:InSeptember2020,aninvitroandinvivostudyshowedthatDMTpresentintheayahuascainfusionpromotesneurogenesis.[28] Psilocybin:Also,lowdose(0.1 mg/kg)ofpsilocybingiventomouse,increasedneurogenesisinthehippocampus2weeksafteradministration,whileahighdose(1 mg/kg)significantlydecreasedneurogenesis.[29] Otherfindings[edit] Thereisevidencethatnewneuronsareproducedinthedentategyrusoftheadultmammalianhippocampus,thebrainregionimportantforlearning,motivation,memory,andemotion.Astudyreportedthatnewlymadecellsintheadultmousehippocampuscandisplaypassivemembraneproperties,actionpotentialsandsynapticinputssimilartotheonesfoundinmaturedentategranulecells.Thesefindingssuggestedthatthesenewlymadecellscanmatureintomorepracticalandusefulneuronsintheadultmammalianbrain.[30] Seealso[edit] Neurulation Gliogenesis Noogenesis References[edit] ^abcEricR.Kandel,ed.(2006).Principlesofneuralscience(5. ed.).AppletonandLange:McGrawHill.ISBN 978-0071390118. 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Externallinks[edit] ABriefHistoryandTimeline|Neurogenesis HistoryModule:TheGrowthofNewNeuronsintheAdultHumanBrain Article:NatureMedicine4,1313-1317(1998)doi:10.1038/3305Neurogenesisintheadulthumanhippocampus Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neurogenesis&oldid=1067397439" Categories:NeuroscienceAnimaldevelopmentalbiologyStemcellsHiddencategories:ArticleswithshortdescriptionShortdescriptionmatchesWikidata Navigationmenu Personaltools NotloggedinTalkContributionsCreateaccountLogin Namespaces ArticleTalk Variants expanded collapsed Views ReadEditViewhistory More expanded collapsed Search Navigation MainpageContentsCurrenteventsRandomarticleAboutWikipediaContactusDonate Contribute HelpLearntoeditCommunityportalRecentchangesUploadfile Tools WhatlinkshereRelatedchangesUploadfileSpecialpagesPermanentlinkPageinformationCitethispageWikidataitem Print/export DownloadasPDFPrintableversion Inotherprojects WikimediaCommons Languages العربيةCatalàDeutschEestiEspañolEuskaraفارسیFrançais한국어BahasaIndonesiaItalianoעבריתLatinaNederlands日本語NorskbokmålPolskiPortuguêsРусскийSvenskaதமிழ்ไทยTürkçe粵語中文 Editlinks