What are the psychological characteristics of people holding ...

It has been suggested that political extremists (e.g., right-wing and ... far right beliefs increases people's social identity and personal ... Jumptomaincontent   Searchourwebpages Search Home Research Resources Publications Newsandevents Aboutthecenter People Backtouio.no Menu Norwegianwebsite Foremployees Mystudies Submenu Resources Bibliographies CFPDataset C-REXCompendium Formers RTVDataset Resources > C-REXCompendium > Whatarethepsychologicalcharacteristicsofpeopleholdingfar-rightbeliefs? Whatarethepsychologicalcharacteristicsofpeopleholdingfar-rightbeliefs? MilanObaidi    Peoplewithfarrightbeliefsarecharacterizedbyasimplifiedmindsetandtendencytosearchfororderandstructure. Theyhaveastrongdesireforgroup-baseddominanceandhierarchy,andoftenseesocialgroupsarrangedalongasuperiority-inferioritydimension. Theyperceivethewiderauthoritiesasillegitimate. Extremebeliefsandorientations Theriseofideologicalpolarizationandpoliticalextremismhasreignitedimportantquestionsaboutwhatcharacterizesthosewhoholdextremebeliefsandorientations.Ithasbeensuggestedthatpoliticalextremists(e.g.,right-wingandleft-wing)andreligiousfundamentalists(e.g.,Islamists)sharearangeofpsychologicalsimilarities.[1]However,themainfocusofthisentryistoexaminepsychologicalfeaturesofpeopleholdingfarrightbeliefsandorientations.Atremendousvolumeofscientificworkhasbeenpublishedonthistopic.Herewefocusonthemostcommonpsychologicalfeaturesofpeoplewhoholdfarrightbeliefs(i.e.anti-egalitarianism,anti-democracy,illiberalismandoppositiontostatemonopolyonlegitimateuseofviolence).[2] Avoidanceofuncertaintyorambiguity Peopleadoptcertainmindsets,cognitivestyles,anddispositionsbecausetheysatisfypsychologicalneedsandmotivessuchasneedforclosure,order,structure,andavoidanceofuncertaintyorambiguity.[3]Individualswhoendorsefarrightideologyoftenhaveanincreaseddesireforobediencetoauthority,order,purity,familiarity,structure,andarigidworldviewmentality.[4]Particularly,theytendtoadheretoaworldviewthatisbasedonauthoritarianismandhierarchybetweensocialgroups.[5]Thisisfurtherreflectedintheirpsychologicalprofile,whichismorereflectiveofthedesireforgroup-baseddominanceandsubjugation(includingwomen’ssubordination),traditionalism,andsocialinequality.[6]Thetendencytodominateandsubjugatedisadvantagedandminoritygroupsisparticularlyexpressedinanti-immigrantandxenophobicstances,strongpreferenceforanethnically,culturallyand/orraciallyhomogeneouspopulation,andprejudiceagainstminorities.[7]Moreover,themotivetoseesocialgroupsarrangedalongasuperiority-inferioritydimensionistypicallymorepronouncedamongpeopleholdingfarrightbeliefs,andhencetheyarelesstolerantofLGBTQcommunities,ethnicandracialminorities,women,andgeneralizedprejudicetowardslow-statusgroups(e.g.,thehomelessanddisabled).[8] Rigidmindset Anotherkeyfeatureoffarrightindividualsistherigidityoftheirmindset—acognitivestylereflectedinincreasedclosed-mindedness,simplisticstyleofthinking,andblack-and-whiteperceptionsofsociety.[9]Accordingtoideologicalextremityhypothesis(i.e.rigidity-of-the-extreme),individualsonthefarleftmayalsobecharacterizedbypsychologicalrigidity.[10]However,ithasbeenarguedthattherigidityoftheleftislesscommonthanrigidityoftheright(i.e.,rigidity-of-the-right).[11]Forexample,individualswithfarrightbeliefsdisplayparticularlystrongdogmaticintolerance—definedasthetendencytorejectopposingbeliefs—andconsideranyideologicalbeliefthatdiffersfromtheirsasinferior.[12]Thisso-calledrigidity-of-the-righthypothesisfollowsalongtraditionofresearchsuggestingthatclosed-mindednessanddogmatismareassociatedwithincreasinglyright-wingattitudesandextremeideologies.Thisiscorroboratedbyfindingsdemonstratingthatright-wingpoliticalattitudesarecorrelatedwithpsychologicalrigidity.[13] Empirically,therearestudiesshowinganassociationbetweenfarrightpoliticalstandpointsanddogmatism,aswellaslowopenness.[14]Ingeneral,dogmaticpeoplearecharacterizedbyincreasedcognitiveinflexibility,inabilitytoprocessopposingideasandinformation,andthetendencytodehumanizethosewhoopposetheirbeliefs.[15]Indeed,cognitiveinflexiblyisrelatedtotherealmsofnationalismandauthoritarianism,andextremistattitudes.[16]Forinstance,usingtwosamplesofpredominantlywhiteAmericanandBritishrespondents,scholars[17]demonstratedthatmentalinflexibilitymayfacilitateatendencytowardsextremistviews.Respondentswhowerelowerincognitiveinflexiblyweremorelikelytoharmothersandengageinself-sacrificeinthenameofanideologicalgroup. Roleofsocialpsychologicalfactors Inadditiontoindividuallevelvariables,scholarsofextremismhavealsoemphasizedtheroleofsocialpsychologicalfactors,suchidentityandbelongingprocesses.[18]Onetheoreticalframeworkthathasexploredthepsychologicalmotivationsbehindextremismissignificancequesttheory(SQT).[19]Accordingtothistheory,extremebeliefsandactionsreflectmeansofobtainingorrestoringanindividual’sexperienceofpersonalsignificanceandidentity.[20]Indeed,theexperienceofsignificantloss(e.g.,experiencesofhumiliation,rejection,perceivedrelativedeprivation,andinjustice)predictsright-wingextremeattitudesandintentions. Recentworkhasdemonstratedthatquestforsignificancecanindeedleadtoextremism[21]andmotivatepeopletoself-sacrificeforapoliticalcause.[22]Forinstance,usingasampleofDutchrespondents,scholars[23]demonstratedthatpsychologicaldistress(e.g.,perceiveddeprivation)stimulatesadherencetofarrightideology,whichinturnpredictssupportforright-wingextremistviolenceandviolentintentions.[24]Moreover,astudyusingasampleofwhiteAmericanswithRepublicanaffiliation[25]showedthatperceivedpsychologicaldistresspredictedstrongerwillingnesstoviolentlypersecutepoliticalout-groups.Effectsontheseextremisttendencieswerelargelymediatedbypeople’sincreasedclosenesswiththeirpoliticalleader.[26]Inotherwords,themorepsychologicaldistresspeopleexperience,themoretheyidentifiedwiththeirpoliticalleader,whichinturnmadethemmorewillingtouseviolenceagainstthoseidentifiedasthreatsbythisleader.[27] Needforcognitiveclosure Furthermore,thelinkbetweenpsychologicaldistressandadherencetofarrightbeliefsandextremismissuggestedtobemediatedbyaneedforcognitiveclosure(NCC)—amotivationalstateinwhichindividualsseekunambiguousandabsoluteanswers.[28]Infact,researchshowsthataneedforcognitiveclosureisassociatedwith right-wingpolitical orientation.[29]Thus,peoplemayendorsefarrightbeliefsandideologybecauseofaneedforbelongingnessandidentity.Individualswholackacoherentsenseofidentitymaybeparticularlyvulnerabletosuchindoctrination.[30]Indeed,inthefaceofsocialexclusion,itisreasonedthatexpressionsofethno-centrism—definedasthebeliefintheinherentsuperiorityofone'sownethnicgrouporculture—becomesameansbywhichone’ssocialidentityisboosted.[31]Insum,holdingfarrightbeliefsincreasespeople’ssocialidentityandpersonalimportancebecausesuchbeliefssatisfyaneedtobelongtogroupsoflike-mindedpeople.[32   [1]Gambetta,D.,&Hertog,S.(2017). Engineersofjihad:Thecuriousconnectionbetweenviolentextremismandeducation.Princeton,USA:PrincetonUniversityPress;Kruglanski,A.W.,Gelfand,M.J.,Bélanger,J.J.,Sheveland,A.,Hetiarachchi,M.,&Gunaratna,R.(2014).Thepsychologyofradicalizationandderadicalization:Howsignificancequestimpactsviolentextremism. PoliticalPsychology, 35(S1),69-93;SeealsoGreenberg,J.,&Jonas,E.(2003).Psychologicalmotivesandpoliticalorientation—theleft,theright,andtherigid:commentonJostetal.(2003).PsychologicalBulletin,129(3),376–382;vanProoijen,J.W.,&Krouwel,A.P.(2017).Extremepoliticalbeliefspredictdogmaticintolerance. SocialPsychologicalandPersonalityScience, 8(3),292-300;Obaidi,M.,Kunst,J.R.,Kteily,N.,Thomsen,L.,&Sidanius,J.(2018).Livingunderthreat:Mutualthreatperceptiondrivesanti-Muslimandanti-Westernhostilityintheageofterrorism. EuropeanJournalofSocialPsychology, 48(5),567-584;Obaidi,M.,Thomsen,L.,&Bergh,R.(2018).“Theythinkweareathreattotheirculture”:Meta-culturalthreatfuelswillingnessandendorsementofextremistviolenceagainsttheculturaloutgroup. InternationalJournalofConflictandViolence, 12,1-13. [2]InternationalCentreforCounter-Terrorism(ICCT).(2013,March).Radicalisation,de-radicalisation,counter-radicalisation:Aconceptualdiscussionandliteraturereview(A.P.Schmid,Author;ICCTResearchPaper).https://icct.nl/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/ICCT-Schmid-Radicalisation-De-Radicalisation-Counter-Radicalisation-March-2013_2.pdf. [3]Greenberg&Jonas(2003);Kruglanski,A.W.,Webster,D.M.,&Klem,A.(1993).Motivatedresistanceandopennesstopersuasioninthepresenceorabsenceofpriorinformation. Journalofpersonalityandsocialpsychology, 65(5),861-876. [4]Alizadeh,M.,Weber,I.,Cioffi-Revilla,C.,Fortunato,S.,&Macy,M.(2019).Psychologyandmoralityofpoliticalextremists:EvidencefromTwitterlanguageanalysisofalt-rightandantifa. EPJDataScience, 8(17).https://doi.org/10.1140/epjds/s13688-019-0193-9;Altemeyer,B.(1998).Theother“authoritarianpersonality”. Advancesinexperimentalsocialpsychology,30,47-92;Gambetta&Hertog(2017);Jost,J.T.,Glaser,J.,Kruglanski,A.W.,&Sulloway,F.J.(2003).Politicalconservatismasmotivatedsocialcognition. Psychologicalbulletin, 129(3),339-375;Hibbing,J.R.,Smith,K.B.,&Alford,J.R.(2014).Differencesinnegativitybiasunderlievariationsinpoliticalideology.Behavioralandbrainsciences,37,297-350. [5]Bobbio,N.(1996). Leftandright:Thesignificanceofapoliticaldistinction.Chicago,USA:UniversityofChicagoPress;Forscher,P.S.,&Kteily,N.S.(2020).Apsychologicalprofileofthealt-right. PerspectivesonPsychologicalScience,15(1),90-116;Meloen,J.,&Middendorp,C.(1991).AuthoritarianismintheNetherlands:Theempiricaldistributioninthepopulationanditsrelationtotheoriesonauthoritarianism1970–1985. Politics&theIndividual1(2),49-72;Pratto,F.,Sidanius,J.,Stallworth,L.M.,&Malle,B.F.(1994).Socialdominanceorientation:Apersonalityvariablepredictingsocialandpoliticalattitudes. JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology, 67(4),741-763. [6]Forscher&Kteily(2017);Sidanius,J.,&Pratto,F.(2003).Socialdominancetheoryandthedynamicsofinequality:AreplytoSchmitt,Branscombe,&KappenandWilson&Liu. TheBritishJournalofSocialPsychology, 42,207-213. [7]Sears,D.O.,&Henry,P.J.(2003).Theoriginsofsymbolicracism. Journalofpersonalityandsocialpsychology, 85(2),259-275;Bergh,R.,Akrami,N.,Sidanius,J.,&Sibley,C.G.(2016).Isgroupmembershipnecessaryforunderstandinggeneralizedprejudice?Are-evaluationofwhyprejudicesareinterrelated. Journalofpersonalityandsocialpsychology, 111(3),367-395. [8]TerrizziJr,J.A.,Shook,N.J.,&Ventis,W.L.(2010).Disgust:Apredictorofsocialconservatismandprejudicialattitudestowardhomosexuals. Personalityandindividualdifferences, 49(6),587-592;VanHiel,A.,Pandelaere,M.,&Duriez,B.(2004).Theimpactofneedforclosureonconservativebeliefsandracism:Differentialmediationbyauthoritariansubmissionandauthoritariandominance. PersonalityandSocialPsychologyBulletin, 30(7),824-837. [9]Gambetta&Hertog(2017);Jostetal.(2003);Zmigrod,L.,Rentfrow,P.J.,&Robbins,T.W.(2019,May7).Cognitiveinflexibilitypredictsextremistattitudes. Frontiersinpsychology.https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00989;Rokeach,M.(1954).Thenatureandmeaningofdogmatism.PsychologicalReview,61(3),194–204. [10]Greenberg&Jonas(2003);vanProoijen,J.W.,&Krouwel,A.P.(2019).Psychologicalfeaturesofextremepoliticalideologies. CurrentDirectionsinPsychologicalScience, 28(2),159-163. [11]Jostetal.(2003);Jost,J.T.(2017).Ideologicalasymmetriesandtheessenceofpoliticalpsychology. PoliticalPsychology, 38(2),167-208. [12]vanProoijen&Krouwel(2017);Toner,K.,Leary,M.R.,Asher,M.W.,&Jongman-Sereno,K.P.(2013).Feelingsuperiorisabipartisanissue:Extremity(notdirection)ofpoliticalviewspredictsperceivedbeliefsuperiority. PsychologicalScience, 24(12),2454-2462. [13]Zmigrod,L.,Rentfrow,P.J.,&Robbins,T.W.(2018).CognitiveunderpinningsofnationalisticideologyinthecontextofBrexit. ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences, 115(19);formeta-analysesseeJostetal.(2003);VanHiel,A.,Onraet,E.,Crowson,H.M.,&Roets,A.(2016).Therelationshipbetweenright‐wingattitudesandcognitivestyle:Acomparisonofself-reportandbehaviouralmeasuresofrigidityandintoleranceofambiguity. EuropeanJournalofPersonality, 30(6),523-531. [14]DeRegt,Mortelmans,&Smits(2011);Gøtzsche-Astrup,O.(2019).Personalitymoderatestherelationshipbetweenuncertaintyandpoliticalviolence:EvidencefromtwolargeUSsamples. Personalityandindividualdifferences, 139,102-109. [15]DeRegt,Mortelmans,&Smits(2011) [16]Zmigrod,Rentfrow,&Robbins(2019) [17]Zmigrod,Rentfrow,&Robbins(2018) [18]Littman,R.,&Paluck,E.L.(2015).Thecycleofviolence:Understandingindividualparticipationincollectiveviolence. PoliticalPsychology, 36,79-99;Lyons-Padilla,S.,Gelfand,M.J.,Mirahmadi,H.,Farooq,M.,&VanEgmond,M.(2015).Belongingnowhere:Marginalization&radicalizationriskamongMuslimimmigrants. BehavioralScience&Policy, 1(2),1-12;McCauley,C.,&Moskalenko,S.(2008).Mechanismsofpoliticalradicalization:Pathwaystowardterrorism. Terrorismandpoliticalviolence, 20(3),415-433. [19]Kruglanski,A.W.,&Fishman,S.(2009).Psychologicalfactorsinterrorismandcounterterrorism:Individual,group,andorganizationallevelsofanalysis. SocialIssuesandPolicyReview, 3(1),1-44;Kruglanskietal.(2014). [20]Kruglanski,A.,Jasko,K.,Webber,D.,Chernikova,M.,&Molinario,E.(2018).Themakingofviolentextremists. ReviewofGeneralPsychology, 22(1),107-120;Webber,D.,Klein,K.,Kruglanski,A.,Brizi,A.,&Merari,A.(2017).Divergentpathstomartyrdomandsignificanceamongsuicideattackers. Terrorismandpoliticalviolence, 29(5),852-874. [21]Webber,D.,Babush,M.,Schori-Eyal,N.,Vazeou-Nieuwenhuis,A.,Hettiarachchi,M.,Bélanger,J.J.,Moyano,M.,Trujillo,H.M.,Gunaratna,R.,Kruglanski,A.W.,&Gelfand,M.J.(2018).Theroadtoextremism:Fieldandexperimentalevidencethatsignificanceloss-inducedneedforclosurefostersradicalization. Journalofpersonalityandsocialpsychology, 114(2),270-285 [22]Dugas,M.,Bélanger,J.J.,Moyano,M.,Schumpe,B.M.,Kruglanski,A.W.,Gelfand,M.J.,Touchton-Leonard,K.,&Nociti,N.(2016).Thequestforsignificancemotivatesself-sacrifice. MotivationScience, 2(1),15-32. [23]Doosje,B.,vandenBos,K.,Loseman,A.,Feddes,A.R.,&Mann,L.(2012).“Myin‐groupissuperior!”:Susceptibilityforradicalright‐wingattitudesandbehaviorsinDutchyouth. NegotiationandConflictManagementResearch, 5(3),253-268. [24]Ibid. [25]Kunst,J.R.,Dovidio,J.F.,&Thomsen,L.(2019).Fusionwithpoliticalleaderspredictswillingnesstopersecuteimmigrantsandpoliticalopponents. NatureHumanBehaviour, 3(11),1180-1189. [26]SwannJr,W.B.,Jetten,J.,Gómez,Á.,Whitehouse,H.,&Bastian,B.(2012).Whengroupmembershipgetspersonal:Atheoryofidentityfusion. Psychologicalreview, 119(3),441-456. [27]Kunst,Dovidio,&Thomsen(2019) [28]Webberetal.(2017) [29]Chirumbolo,A.(2002).Therelationshipbetweenneedforcognitiveclosureandpoliticalorientation:Themediatingroleofauthoritarianism. PersonalityandIndividualDifferences, 32(4),603-610. [30]Post,J.M.(1987).Rewardingfirewithfire:Effectsofretaliationonterroristgroupdynamics. StudiesinConflict&Terrorism, 10(1),23-35. [31]Greitemeyer,T.(2012).Boostingone'ssocialidentity:Effectsofsocialexclusiononethnocentrism. Basicandappliedsocialpsychology, 34(5),410-416. [32]Tajfel,H.(Ed.)(2010). Socialidentityandintergrouprelations.Cambridge,UK:CambridgeUniversityPress. By MilanObaidi PublishedSep.7,202012:11PM -LastmodifiedMar.8,20211:40PM E-mailthispage ShareonFacebook ShareonTwitter Keyconcepts Whatisright-wingextremism? Whatisright-wingradicalism? Whatisnationalism? Whatisfascism? Whatispopulism? Whatisracism? WhatisIslamophobia? Whatisantisemitism? Whatisaconspiracytheory? Whatishatecrime? Whatisfundamentalism? Whatisradicalization? Whatisterrorism? Keyquestions WhatcharacterizesthefarrightsceneinEuropeandbeyond? Whatarethepsychologicalcharacteristicsofpeopleholdingfarrightbeliefs? Whatexplainsfar-rightmobilization? Whatexplainsfar-rightviolence? Whatexplainswhypeoplejoinandleavefar-rightgroups? Whatroledoesgenderplayinthefarright? Whatistherelationshipbetweenthefarrightandthemedia? Whatcandemocraciesdotopreventextremistviolence?