Trolley problem - Wikipedia

The trolley problem is a series of thought experiments in ethics and psychology, involving stylized ethical dilemmas of whether to sacrifice one person to ... Trolleyproblem FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Thoughtexperimentinethics "TheTrolleyProblem"redirectshere.Forthetelevisionepisodeofthesamename,seeTheTrolleyProblem(TheGoodPlace). Oneofthedilemmasincludedinthetrolleyproblem:shouldyoupullthelevertodiverttherunawaytrolleyontothesidetrack? Thetrolleyproblemisaseriesofthoughtexperimentsinethicsandpsychology,involvingstylizedethicaldilemmasofwhethertosacrificeonepersontosavealargernumber.Theseriesusuallybeginswithascenarioinwhicharunawaytramortrolleyisoncoursetocollidewithandkillanumberofpeople(traditionallyfive)downthetrack,butadriverorbystandercaninterveneanddivertthevehicletokilljustonepersononadifferenttrack.Thenothervariationsoftherunawayvehicle,andanalogouslife-and-deathdilemmas(medical,judicialetc.)areposed,eachcontainingtheoptiontoeitherdonothing,inwhichcaseseveralpeoplewillbekilled,orinterveneandsacrificeoneinitially"safe"persontosavetheothers. Opinionsontheethicsofeachscenarioturnouttobesensitivetodetailsofthestorythatmayseemimmaterialtotheabstractdilemma.Thequestionofformulatingageneralprinciplethatcanaccountforthedifferingjudgementsarisingindifferentvariantsofthestorywasraisedina1967philosophypaperbyPhilippaFoot,anddubbed"thetrolleyproblem"byJudithJarvisThomsonina1976articlethatcatalyzedalargeliterature.Thus,inthissubjectthetrolleyproblemreferstothemeta-problemofwhydifferentjudgementsarearrivedatinparticularinstances,whicharecalledtrolleycases,examples,dilemmas,orscenarios. Themostbasicversionofthedilemma,knownas"BystanderattheSwitch"or"Switch",goes: Thereisarunawaytrolleybarrelingdowntherailwaytracks.Ahead,onthetracks,therearefivepeopletiedupandunabletomove.Thetrolleyisheadedstraightforthem.Youarestandingsomedistanceoffinthetrainyard,nexttoalever.Ifyoupullthislever,thetrolleywillswitchtoadifferentsetoftracks.However,younoticethatthereisonepersononthesidetrack.Youhavetwo(andonlytwo)options: Donothing,inwhichcasethetrolleywillkillthefivepeopleonthemaintrack. Pullthelever,divertingthetrolleyontothesidetrackwhereitwillkilloneperson. Whichisthemoreethicaloption?Or,moresimply:Whatistherightthingtodo? PhilippaFootintroducedthisgenreofdecisionproblemsin1967aspartofananalysisofdebatesonabortionandthedoctrineofdoubleeffect.[1]PhilosophersJudithThomson,[2][3]FrancesKamm,[4]andPeterUngerhavealsoanalysedthedilemmaextensively.[5]Thomson's1976articleinitiatedtheliteratureonthetrolleyproblemasasubjectinitsownright.Characteristicofthisliteraturearecolorfulandincreasinglyabsurdalternativescenariosinwhichthesacrificedmanisinsteadpushedontothetracksasaweighttostopthetrolley,hashisorgansharvestedtosavetransplantpatients,oriskilledinmoreindirectwaysthatcomplicatethechainofcausationandresponsibility. EarlierformsofindividualtrolleyscenariosantedatedFoot'spublication.FrankChapmanSharpincludedaversioninamoralquestionnairegiventoundergraduatesattheUniversityofWisconsinin1905.Inthisvariation,therailway'sswitchmancontrolledtheswitch,andtheloneindividualtobesacrificed(ornot)wastheswitchman'schild.[6][7]GermanphilosopheroflawKarlEngischdiscussedasimilardilemmainhishabilitationthesisin1930,asdidGermanlegalscholarHansWelzelinaworkfrom1951.[8][9]InhiscommentaryontheTalmud,publishedlongbeforehisdeathin1953,AvrohomYeshayaKarelitzconsideredthequestionofwhetheritisethicaltodeflectaprojectilefromalargercrowdtowardasmallerone.[10] Beginningin2001,thetrolleyproblemanditsvariantshavebeenusedinempiricalresearchonmoralpsychology.Ithasbeenatopicofpopularbooks.[11]Trolley-stylescenariosalsoariseindiscussingtheethicsofautonomousvehicledesign,whichmayrequireprogrammingtochoosewhomorwhattostrikewhenacollisionappearstobeunavoidable.[12] Contents 1Originaldilemma 2Empiricalresearch 2.1Surveydata 2.2Criticism 3Relatedproblems 3.1Thelargeman 4Implicationsforautonomousvehicles 5Real-lifeincident 6Inpopularculture 6.1Film,stage,andtelevision 7Seealso 8References 9Externallinks Originaldilemma[edit] Foot'sversionofthethoughtexperiment,nowknownas"TrolleyDriver",ranasfollows: Supposethatajudgeormagistrateisfacedwithriotersdemandingthataculpritbefoundforacertaincrimeandthreateningotherwisetotaketheirownbloodyrevengeonaparticularsectionofthecommunity.Therealculpritbeingunknown,thejudgeseeshimselfasabletopreventthebloodshedonlybyframingsomeinnocentpersonandhavinghimexecuted.Besidethisexampleisplacedanotherinwhichapilotwhoseairplaneisabouttocrashisdecidingwhethertosteerfromamoretoalessinhabitedarea.Tomaketheparallelascloseaspossible,itmayratherbesupposedthatheisthedriverofarunawaytram,whichhecanonlysteerfromonenarrowtrackontoanother;fivemenareworkingononetrackandonemanontheother;anyoneonthetrackheentersisboundtobekilled.Inthecaseoftheriots,themobhavefivehostages,sothatinbothexamples,theexchangeissupposedtobeoneman'slifeforthelivesoffive.[1] Autilitarianviewassertsthatitisobligatorytosteertothetrackwithonemanonit.Accordingtoclassicalutilitarianism,suchadecisionwouldbenotonlypermissible,but,morallyspeaking,thebetteroption(theotheroptionbeingnoactionatall).[13]Analternativeviewpointisthatsincemoralwrongsarealreadyinplaceinthesituation,movingtoanothertrackconstitutesaparticipationinthemoralwrong,makingonepartiallyresponsibleforthedeathwhenotherwisenoonewouldberesponsible.Anopponentofactionmayalsopointtotheincommensurabilityofhumanlives.Undersomeinterpretationsofmoralobligation,simplybeingpresentinthissituationandbeingabletoinfluenceitsoutcomeconstitutesanobligationtoparticipate.Ifthisisthecase,thendoingnothingwouldbeconsideredanimmoralact. Empiricalresearch[edit] Seealso:MoralpsychologyandDualprocesstheory(moralpsychology) In2001,JoshuaGreeneandcolleaguespublishedtheresultsofthefirstsignificantempiricalinvestigationofpeople'sresponsestotrolleyproblems.[14]Usingfunctionalmagneticresonanceimaging,theydemonstratedthat"personal"dilemmas(likepushingamanoffafootbridge)preferentiallyengagebrainregionsassociatedwithemotion,whereas"impersonal"dilemmas(likedivertingthetrolleybyflippingaswitch)preferentiallyengagedregionsassociatedwithcontrolledreasoning.Onthesegrounds,theyadvocateforthedual-processaccountofmoraldecision-making.Sincethen,numerousotherstudieshaveemployedtrolleyproblemstostudymoraljudgment,investigatingtopicsliketheroleandinfluenceofstress,[15]emotionalstate,[16]impressionmanagement,[17]levelsofanonymity,[18]differenttypesofbraindamage,[19]physiologicalarousal,[20]differentneurotransmitters,[21]andgeneticfactors[22]onresponsestotrolleydilemmas. Trolleyproblemshavebeenusedasameasureofutilitarianism,buttheirusefulnessforsuchpurposeshasbeenwidelycriticized.[23][24][25] In2017,agroupledbyMichaelStevensperformedthefirstrealistictrolley-problemexperiment,wheresubjectswereplacedaloneinwhattheythoughtwasatrain-switchingstation,andshownfootagethattheythoughtwasreal(butwasactuallyprerecorded)ofatraingoingdownatrack,withfiveworkersonthemaintrack,andoneonthesecondarytrack;theparticipantshadtheoptiontopullthelevertodivertthetraintowardthesecondarytrack.Mostoftheparticipantsdidnotpullthelever.[26] Surveydata[edit] Thetrolleyproblemhasbeenthesubjectofmanysurveysinwhichabout90%ofrespondentshavechosentokilltheoneandsavethefive.[27]Ifthesituationismodifiedwheretheonesacrificedforthefivewasarelativeorromanticpartner,respondentsaremuchlesslikelytobewillingtosacrificetheonelife.[28] A2009surveybyDavidBourgetandDavidChalmersshowsthat68%ofprofessionalphilosopherswouldswitch(sacrificetheoneindividualtosavefivelives)inthecaseofthetrolleyproblem,8%wouldnotswitch,andtheremaining24%hadanothervieworcouldnotanswer.[29] Criticism[edit] Ina2014paperpublishedintheSocialandPersonalityPsychologyCompass,[23]researcherscriticizedtheuseofthetrolleyproblem,arguing,amongotherthings,thatthescenarioitpresentsistooextremeandunconnectedtoreal-lifemoralsituationstobeusefuloreducational.[30] BriannaRennixandNathanJ.RobinsonofCurrentAffairsgoevenfurtherandassertthatthethoughtexperimentisnotonlyuseless,butalsodownrightdetrimentaltohumanpsychology.Theauthorsopinethattomakecoldcalculationsabouthypotheticalsituationsinwhicheveryalternativewillresultinoneormoregruesomedeathsistoencourageatypeofthinkingthatisdevoidofhumanempathyandassumesamandatetodecidewholivesordies.Theyalsoquestionthepremiseofthescenario."IfIamforcedagainstmywillintoasituationwherepeoplewilldie,andIhavenoabilitytostopit,howismychoicea"moral"choicebetweenmeaningfullydifferentoptions,asopposedtoahorrorshowI'vejustbeenthrustinto,inwhichIhavenomeaningfulagencyatall?"[31] Inher2017paperpublishedintheScience,Technology,andHumanValues,NassimJafariNaimi[32]laysoutthereductivenatureofthetrolleyprobleminframingethicalproblemsthatservestoupholdanimpoverishedversionofutilitarianism.Shearguesthatthepopularargumentthatthetrolleyproblemcanserveasatemplateforalgorithmicmoralityisbasedonfundamentallyflawedpremisesthatservethemostpowerfulwithpotentiallydireconsequencesonthefutureofcities.[33] In2017,inhisbookOnHumanNature,RogerScrutoncriticisestheusageofethicaldilemmassuchasthetrolleyproblemandtheirusagebyphilosopherssuchasDerekParfitandPeterSingeraswaysofillustratingtheirethicalviews.Scrutonwrites,"These'dilemmas'havetheusefulcharacterofeliminatingfromthesituationjustabouteverymorallyrelevantrelationshipandreducingtheproblemtooneofarithmeticalone."Scrutonbelievesthatjustbecauseonewouldchoosetochangethetracksothatthetrainhitstheonepersoninsteadofthefivedoesnotmeanthattheyarenecessarilyaconsequentialist.Asawayofshowingtheflawsinconsequentialistresponsestoethicalproblems,Scrutonpointsoutparadoxicalelementsofbeliefinutilitarianismandsimilarbeliefs.HebelievesthatNozick'sexperiencemachinethoughtexperimentdefinitivelydisproveshedonism.[34]Inhis2017articleTheTrolleyProblemandtheDroppingofAtomicBombs,MasahiroMoriokaconsidersthedroppingofatomicbombsasanexampleofthetrolleyproblemandpointsoutthattherearefive“problemsofthetrolleyproblem,”namely,1)rarity,2)inevitability,3)safetyzone,4)possibilityofbecomingavictim,and5)thelackofperspectiveofthedeadvictimswhoweredeprivedoffreedomofchoice.[35] Ina2018articlepublishedinPsychologicalReview,researcherspointedoutthat,asmeasuresofutilitariandecisions,sacrificialdilemmassuchasthetrolleyproblemmeasureonlyonefacetofproto-utilitariantendencies,namelypermissiveattitudestowardinstrumentalharm,whileignoringimpartialconcernforthegreatergood.Assuch,theauthorsarguedthatthetrolleyproblemprovidesonlyapartialmeasureofutilitarianism.[24] Relatedproblems[edit] Fivecasesofthetrolleyproblem:theoriginalSwitch,theLargeMan,theLargeVillain,theLoop,andtheManintheYard Trolleyproblemshighlightthedifferencebetweendeontologicalandconsequentialistethicalsystems.[12]Thecentralquestionthatthesedilemmasbringtolightisonwhetherornotitisrighttoactivelyinhibittheutilityofanindividualifdoingsoproducesagreaterutilityforotherindividuals. ThebasicSwitchformofthetrolleyproblemalsosupportscomparisontoother,relateddilemmas: Thelargeman[edit] Asbefore,atrolleyishurtlingdownatracktowardsfivepeople.Youareonabridgeunderwhichitwillpass,andyoucanstopitbyputtingsomethingveryheavyinfrontofit.Asithappens,thereisaverylargemannexttoyou–youronlywaytostopthetrolleyistopushhimoverthebridgeandontothetrack,killinghimtosavefive.Shouldyouproceed? Resistancetothiscourseofactionseemsstrong;whenasked,amajorityofpeoplewillapproveofpullingtheswitchtosaveanetoffourlives,butwilldisapproveofpushingthelargemantosaveanetoffourlives.[36]Thishasledtoattemptstofindarelevantmoraldistinctionbetweenthetwocases. Onepossibledistinctioncouldbethatinthefirstcase,onedoesnotintendharmtowardsanyone–harmingtheoneisjustasideeffectofswitchingthetrolleyawayfromthefive.However,inthesecondcase,harmingtheoneisanintegralpartoftheplantosavethefive.Thissolutionisessentiallyanapplicationofthedoctrineofdoubleeffect,whichsaysthatonemaytakeactionthathasbadsideeffects,butdeliberatelyintendingharm(evenforgoodcauses)iswrong.ThisisanargumentwhichShellyKaganconsiders(andultimatelyrejects)inhisfirstbookTheLimitsofMorality.[37] Implicationsforautonomousvehicles[edit] VariantsoftheoriginalTrolleyDriverdilemmaariseinthedesignofsoftwaretocontrolautonomouscars.[12]Situationsareanticipatedwhereapotentiallyfatalcollisionappearstobeunavoidable,butinwhichchoicesmadebythecar'ssoftware,suchasintowhomorwhattocrash,canaffecttheparticularsofthedeadlyoutcome.Forexample,shouldthesoftwarevaluethesafetyofthecar'soccupantsmore,orless,thanthatofpotentialvictimsoutsidethecar.[38][39][40][41] AplatformcalledMoralMachine[42]wascreatedbyMITMediaLabtoallowthepublictoexpresstheiropinionsonwhatdecisionsautonomousvehiclesshouldmakeinscenariosthatusethetrolleyproblemparadigm.AnalysisofthedatacollectedthroughMoralMachineshowedbroaddifferencesinrelativepreferencesamongdifferentcountries.[43]Otherapproachesmakeuseofvirtualrealitytoassesshumanbehaviorinexperimentalsettings.[44][45][46][47]However,somearguethattheinvestigationoftrolley-typecasesisnotnecessarytoaddresstheethicalproblemofdriverlesscars,becausethetrolleycaseshaveaseriouspracticallimitation.Itwouldneedtobetop-downplaninordertofitthecurrentapproachesofaddressingemergenciesinartificialintelligence.[48] Also,aquestionremainsofwhetherthelawshoulddictatetheethicalstandardsthatallautonomousvehiclesmustuse,orwhetherindividualautonomouscarownersordriversshoulddeterminetheircar'sethicalvalues,suchasfavoringsafetyoftheownerortheowner'sfamilyoverthesafetyofothers.[12]Althoughmostpeoplewouldnotbewillingtouseanautomatedcarthatmightsacrificethemselvesinalife-or-deathdilemma,some[who?]believethesomewhatcounterintuitiveclaimthatusingmandatoryethicsvalueswouldneverthelessbeintheirbestinterest.AccordingtoGogollandMüller,"thereasonis,simplyput,that[personalizedethicssettings]wouldmostlikelyresultinaprisoner’sdilemma."[49] In2016,theGermangovernmentappointedacommissiontostudytheethicalimplicationsofautonomousdriving.[50][51]Thecommissionadopted20rulestobeimplementedinthelawsthatwillgoverntheethicalchoicesthatautonomousvehicleswillmake.[51]: 10–13 Relevanttothetrolleydilemmaisthisrule: 8.Genuinedilemmaticdecisions,suchasadecisionbetweenonehumanlifeandanother,dependontheactualspecificsituation,incorporating“unpredictable”behaviourbypartiesaffected.Theycanthusnotbeclearlystandardized,norcantheybeprogrammedsuchthattheyareethicallyunquestionable.Technologicalsystemsmustbedesignedtoavoidaccidents.However,theycannotbestandardizedtoacomplexorintuitiveassessmentoftheimpactsofanaccidentinsuchawaythattheycanreplaceoranticipatethedecisionofaresponsibledriverwiththemoralcapacitytomakecorrectjudgements.Itistruethatahumandriverwouldbeactingunlawfullyifhekilledapersoninanemergencytosavethelivesofoneormoreotherpersons,buthewouldnotnecessarilybeactingculpably.Suchlegaljudgements,madeinretrospectandtakingspecialcircumstancesintoaccount,cannotreadilybetransformedintoabstract/generalexanteappraisalsandthusalsonotintocorrespondingprogrammingactivities.…[51]: 11  Real-lifeincident[edit] AnactualcaseapproximatingtheTrolleyDriverdilemmaoccurredonJune20,2003,whenarunawaystringof31unmannedUnionPacificfreightcarswasbarrelingtowardLosAngelesalongthemainlinetrack1.ToavoidtherunawaytrainfromenteringtheUnionPacificyardsinLosAngeles,whereitwouldnotonlycausedamage,butwasalsowhereaMetrolinkpassengertrainwasthoughttobelocated,dispatchersorderedtheshuntingoftherunawaycarstotrack4,throughanareawithlower-densityhousingofmostlylower-incomeresidents.Theswitchtotrack4wasratedfor15 mph(24 km/h)transits,anddispatchknewthecarsweremovingsignificantlyfaster,thuslikelycausingaderailment.[52]Thetrain,carryingover3,800shorttons(3,400 t)ofmostlylumberandbuildingmaterials,thenderailedintotheresidentialneighborhoodinCommerce,California,crashingthroughseveralhousesonDavieStreet.Theeventresultedin13minorinjuries,includingapregnantwomanasleepinoneofthehouseswhomanagedtoescapethroughawindowandavoidedseriousinjuryfromthelumberandsteeltrainwheelsthatfellaroundher.[53] Inpopularculture[edit] Thissectionappearstocontaintrivial,minor,orunrelatedreferencestopopularculture.Pleasereorganizethiscontenttoexplainthesubject'simpactonpopularculture,providingcitationstoreliable,secondarysources,ratherthansimplylistingappearances.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.(May2021) Similardilemmashavebeenproposedinsciencefictionstories,includingin"TheColdEquations"(TomGodwin,1954),inwhichapilotmustdecidewhethertoretainastowaway,whichwouldcausehisshiptorunoutoffuel,orcompletehismissiontodelivervitalmedicineforsixsettlers. Film,stage,andtelevision[edit] Atrolleyproblemexperimentwasconductedinseasontwo,episodeoneoftheYouTubeOriginalseriesMindField,presentedbyMichaelStevens,[26]butnopaperwaspublishedonthefindings. ThetrolleyproblemformsthemajorplotpremiseofanepisodefromTheGoodPlace,alsonamed"TheTrolleyProblem",inwhichtheimmortalafterlifebeingMichael(TedDanson)magicallycreatesanextremelyrealisticsimulationofthescenarioinordertoseehowtheethicswouldactuallyplayout.[54]Thetrolleyproblemisreferencedagainintheeleventhepisodeofthesecondseason,inwhichMichaelconcludesthatthesolutionisself-sacrifice. ThemovieEyeintheSky[[1]]centersaroundasimilardilemma-whethertobombterroristsandsavethousands,atthecostofthelifeofaninnocentbystander.Dramaticproductionchoicesimplyinterestingcomparisons.Thelifeinquestionisacute,sociallyresponsibletenyearoldgirl.Whatifshewasalazy17yearoldmale? 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