Morality - Wikipedia

Morality can be a body of standards or principles derived from a code of conduct from a particular philosophy, religion or culture, or it can derive from a ... Morality FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Forthecapacityofagroup'smemberstomaintainbeliefinthefaceofoppositionorhardship,seeMorale. Forthenovella,seeMorality(novella). "Morals"redirectshere.Forthefilm,seeMorals(film). "Immoralist"redirectshere.Forthenovel,seeTheImmoralist. Differentiationbetweenrightandwrong AllegorywithaportraitofaVenetiansenator(Allegoryofthemoralityofearthlythings),attributedtoTintoretto,1585 Morality(fromLatinmoralitas 'manner,character,properbehavior')isthedifferentiationofintentions,decisionsandactionsbetweenthosethataredistinguishedasproper(right)andthosethatareimproper(wrong).[1]Moralitycanbeabodyofstandardsorprinciplesderivedfromacodeofconductfromaparticularphilosophy,religionorculture,oritcanderivefromastandardthatapersonbelievesshouldbeuniversal.[2]Moralitymayalsobespecificallysynonymouswith"goodness"or"rightness". Moralphilosophyincludesmeta-ethics,whichstudiesabstractissuessuchasmoralontologyandmoralepistemology,andnormativeethics,whichstudiesmoreconcretesystemsofmoraldecision-makingsuchasdeontologicalethicsandconsequentialism.AnexampleofnormativeethicalphilosophyistheGoldenRule,whichstates:"Oneshouldtreatothersasonewouldlikeotherstotreatoneself."[3][4] Immoralityistheactiveoppositiontomorality(i.e.oppositiontothatwhichisgoodorright),whileamoralityisvariouslydefinedasanunawarenessof,indifferencetoward,ordisbeliefinanyparticularsetofmoralstandardsorprinciples.[5][6][7] Contents 1History 2Ethics 3Descriptiveandnormative 4Realismandanti-realism 5Anthropology 5.1MoralitywithPracticalReasoning 5.2Tribalandterritorial 5.3In-groupandout-group 5.4Comparingcultures 6Evolution 7Psychology 7.1Moralcognition 8Neuroscience 8.1Brainareas 8.2Mirrorneurons 9Genetics 9.1Politics 9.2Religion 9.2.1Positions 9.2.2Empiricalanalyses 9.3Seealso 9.4Notes 9.5References 9.6Furtherreading 9.7Externallinks History[edit] Thissectionneedsexpansion.Youcanhelpbyaddingtoit.(December2021) Ethics[edit] ImmanuelKantintroducedthecategoricalimperative:"Actonlyaccordingtothatmaximwherebyyoucan,atthesametime,willthatitshouldbecomeauniversallaw." Seealso:Sittlichkeit Ethics(alsoknownasmoralphilosophy)isthebranchofphilosophywhichaddressesquestionsofmorality.Theword"ethics"is"commonlyusedinterchangeablywith'morality',andsometimesitisusedmorenarrowlytomeanthemoralprinciplesofaparticulartradition,group,orindividual."[8]Likewise,certaintypesofethicaltheories,especiallydeontologicalethics,sometimesdistinguishbetweenethicsandmorals:"Althoughthemoralityofpeopleandtheirethicsamountstothesamething,thereisausagethatrestrictsmoralitytosystemssuchasthatofImmanuelKant,basedonnotionssuchasduty,obligation,andprinciplesofconduct,reservingethicsforthemoreAristotelianapproachtopracticalreasoning,basedonthenotionofavirtue,andgenerallyavoidingtheseparationof'moral'considerationsfromotherpracticalconsiderations."[9] ForaChinesediscussionofethics,moralityandhumanismseeConfucius,Laozi,anddaode Descriptiveandnormative[edit] Initsdescriptivesense,"morality"referstopersonalorculturalvalues,codesofconductorsocialmoresfromasocietythatprovidesthesecodesofconductinwhichitappliesandisacceptedbyanindividual.Itdoesnotconnoteobjectiveclaimsofrightorwrong,butonlyreferstothatwhichisconsideredrightorwrong.Descriptiveethicsisthebranchofphilosophywhichstudiesmoralityinthissense.[10] Initsnormativesense,"morality"referstowhatever(ifanything)isactuallyrightorwrong,whichmaybeindependentofthevaluesormoresheldbyanyparticularpeoplesorcultures.Normativeethicsisthebranchofphilosophywhichstudiesmoralityinthissense.[10] Realismandanti-realism[edit] Philosophicaltheoriesonthenatureandoriginsofmorality(thatis,theoriesofmeta-ethics)arebroadlydividedintotwoclasses: Moralrealismistheclassoftheorieswhichholdthattherearetruemoralstatementsthatreportobjectivemoralfacts.Forexample,whiletheymightconcedethatforcesofsocialconformitysignificantlyshapeindividuals'"moral"decisions,theydenythatthoseculturalnormsandcustomsdefinemorallyrightbehavior.Thismaybethephilosophicalviewpropoundedbyethicalnaturalists,howevernotallmoralrealistsacceptthatposition(e.g.ethicalnon-naturalists).[11] Moralanti-realism,ontheotherhand,holdsthatmoralstatementseitherfailordonotevenattempttoreportobjectivemoralfacts.Instead,theyholdthatmoralsentencesareeithercategoricallyfalseclaimsofobjectivemoralfacts(errortheory);claimsaboutsubjectiveattitudesratherthanobjectivefacts(ethicalsubjectivism);orelsedonotattempttodescribetheworldatallbutrathersomethingelse,likeanexpressionofanemotionortheissuanceofacommand(non-cognitivism). Someformsofnon-cognitivismandethicalsubjectivism,whileconsideredanti-realistintherobustsenseusedhere,areconsideredrealistinthesensesynonymouswithmoraluniversalism.Forexample,universalprescriptivismisauniversalistformofnon-cognitivismwhichclaimsthatmoralityisderivedfromreasoningaboutimpliedimperatives,anddivinecommandtheoryandidealobservertheoryareuniversalistformsofethicalsubjectivismwhichclaimthatmoralityisderivedfromtheedictsofagodorthehypotheticaldecreesofaperfectlyrationalbeing,respectively. Anthropology[edit] MoralitywithPracticalReasoning[edit] Practicalreasonisnecessaryforthemoralagencybutitisnotasufficientconditionformoralagency.[12]Reallifeissuesthatneedsolutionsdoneedbothrationalityandemotiontobesufficientlymoral.Oneusesrationalityasapathwaytotheultimatedecision,buttheenvironmentandemotionstowardstheenvironmentatthemomentmustbeafactorfortheresulttobetrulymoral,asmoralityissubjecttoculture.Somethingcanonlybemorallyacceptableifthecultureasawholehasacceptedthistobetrue.Practicalreasonandrelevantemotionalconsiderationsarebothconsideredimportantforadecisiontobemoral.[13][neutralityisdisputed] Tribalandterritorial[edit] CeliaGreenmadeadistinctionbetweentribalandterritorialmorality.[14]Shecharacterizesthelatteraspredominantlynegativeandproscriptive:itdefinesaperson'sterritory,includinghisorherpropertyanddependents,whichisnottobedamagedorinterferedwith.Apartfromtheseproscriptions,territorialmoralityispermissive,allowingtheindividualwhateverbehaviourdoesnotinterferewiththeterritoryofanother.Bycontrast,tribalmoralityisprescriptive,imposingthenormsofthecollectiveontheindividual.Thesenormswillbearbitrary,culturallydependentand'flexible',whereasterritorialmoralityaimsatruleswhichareuniversalandabsolute,suchasKant's'categoricalimperative'andGeisler'sgradedabsolutism.Greenrelatesthedevelopmentofterritorialmoralitytotheriseoftheconceptofprivateproperty,andtheascendancyofcontractoverstatus. In-groupandout-group[edit] Mainarticle:In-groupandout-group Someobserversholdthatindividualsapplydistinctsetsofmoralrulestopeopledependingontheirmembershipofan"in-group"(theindividualandthosetheybelievetobeofthesamegroup)oran"out-group"(peoplenotentitledtobetreatedaccordingtothesamerules).Somebiologists,anthropologistsandevolutionarypsychologistsbelievethisin-group/out-groupdiscriminationhasevolvedbecauseitenhancesgroupsurvival.Thisbeliefhasbeenconfirmedbysimplecomputationalmodelsofevolution.[15]Insimulationsthisdiscriminationcanresultinbothunexpectedcooperationtowardsthein-groupandirrationalhostilitytowardstheout-group.[16]GaryR.JohnsonandV.S.Falgerhavearguedthatnationalismandpatriotismareformsofthisin-group/out-groupboundary.JonathanHaidthasnoted[17]thatexperimentalobservationindicatinganin-groupcriterionprovidesonemoralfoundationsubstantiallyusedbyconservatives,butfarlesssobyliberals. In-grouppreferenceisalsohelpfulattheindividuallevelforthepassingonofone'sgenes.Forexample,amotherwhofavorsherownchildrenmorehighlythanthechildrenofotherpeoplewillgivegreaterresourcestoherchildrenthanshewilltostrangers',thusheighteningherchildren'schancesofsurvivalandherowngene'schancesofbeingperpetuated.Duetothis,withinapopulation,thereissubstantialselectionpressureexertedtowardthiskindofself-interest,suchthateventually,allparentswindupfavoringtheirownchildren(thein-group)overotherchildren(theout-group). Comparingcultures[edit] PetersonandSeligman[18]approachtheanthropologicalviewlookingacrosscultures,geo-culturalareasandacrossmillennia.Theyconcludethatcertainvirtueshaveprevailedinallculturestheyexamined.Themajorvirtuestheyidentifiedincludewisdom/knowledge;courage;humanity;justice;temperance;andtranscendence.Eachoftheseincludesseveraldivisions.Forinstancehumanityincludeslove,kindness,andsocialintelligence. Still,otherstheorizethatmoralityisnotalwaysabsolute,contendingthatmoralissuesoftendifferalongculturallines.A2014PEWresearchstudyamongseveralnationsilluminatessignificantculturaldifferencesamongissuescommonlyrelatedtomorality,includingdivorce,extramaritalaffairs,homosexuality,gambling,abortion,alcoholuse,contraceptiveuse,andpremaritalsex.Eachofthe40countriesinthisstudyhasarangeofpercentagesaccordingtowhatpercentageofeachcountrybelievesthecommonmoralissuesareacceptable,unacceptable,ornotmoralissuesatall.Eachpercentageregardingthesignificanceofthemoralissuevariesgreatlyonthecultureinwhichthemoralissueispresented.[19] Advocatesofatheoryknownasmoralrelativismsubscribetothenotionthatmoralvirtuesarerightorwrongonlywithinthecontextofacertainstandpoint(e.g.,culturalcommunity).Inotherwords,whatismorallyacceptableinoneculturemaybetabooinanother.Theyfurthercontendthatnomoralvirtuecanobjectivelybeprovenrightorwrong[20]Criticsofmoralrelativismpointtohistoricalatrocitiessuchasinfanticide,slavery,orgenocideascounterarguments,notingthedifficultyinacceptingtheseactionssimplythroughculturallenses. FonsTrompenaars,authorofDidthePedestrianDie?,testedmembersofdifferentcultureswithvariousmoraldilemmas.Oneofthesewaswhetherthedriverofacarwouldhavehisfriend,apassengerridinginthecar,lieinordertoprotectthedriverfromtheconsequencesofdrivingtoofastandhittingapedestrian.Trompenaarsfoundthatdifferentcultureshadquitedifferentexpectations,fromnonetodefinite.[21] Evolution[edit] Seealso:Altruism§ Evolutionaryexplanations,Evolutionofmorality,andEvolutionaryethics Thedevelopmentofmodernmoralityisaprocesscloselytiedtosocioculturalevolution.Someevolutionarybiologists,particularlysociobiologists,believethatmoralityisaproductofevolutionaryforcesactingatanindividuallevelandalsoatthegrouplevelthroughgroupselection(althoughtowhatdegreethisactuallyoccursisacontroversialtopicinevolutionarytheory).Somesociobiologistscontendthatthesetofbehaviorsthatconstitutemoralityevolvedlargelybecausetheyprovidedpossiblesurvivalorreproductivebenefits(i.e.increasedevolutionarysuccess).Humansconsequentlyevolved"pro-social"emotions,suchasfeelingsofempathyorguilt,inresponsetothesemoralbehaviors. Onthisunderstanding,moralitiesaresetsofself-perpetuatingandbiologicallydrivenbehaviorswhichencouragehumancooperation.Biologistscontendthatallsocialanimals,fromantstoelephants,havemodifiedtheirbehaviors,byrestrainingimmediateselfishnessinordertoimprovetheirevolutionaryfitness.Humanmorality,althoughsophisticatedandcomplexrelativetothemoralitiesofotheranimals,isessentiallyanaturalphenomenonthatevolvedtorestrictexcessiveindividualismthatcouldundermineagroup'scohesionandtherebyreducingtheindividuals'fitness.[22] Onthisview,moralcodesareultimatelyfoundedonemotionalinstinctsandintuitionsthatwereselectedforinthepastbecausetheyaidedsurvivalandreproduction(inclusivefitness).Examples:thematernalbondisselectedforbecauseitimprovesthesurvivalofoffspring;theWestermarckeffect,wherecloseproximityduringearlyyearsreducesmutualsexualattraction,underpinstaboosagainstincestbecauseitdecreasesthelikelihoodofgeneticallyriskybehavioursuchasinbreeding. Thephenomenonofreciprocityinnatureisseenbyevolutionarybiologistsasonewaytobegintounderstandhumanmorality.Itsfunctionistypicallytoensureareliablesupplyofessentialresources,especiallyforanimalslivinginahabitatwherefoodquantityorqualityfluctuatesunpredictably.Forexample,somevampirebatsfailtofeedonpreysomenightswhileothersmanagetoconsumeasurplus.Batsthatdideatwillthenregurgitatepartoftheirbloodmealtosaveaconspecificfromstarvation.Sincetheseanimalsliveinclose-knitgroupsovermanyyears,anindividualcancountonothergroupmemberstoreturnthefavoronnightswhenitgoeshungry(Wilkinson,1984) MarcBekoffandJessicaPierce(2009)havearguedthatmoralityisasuiteofbehavioralcapacitieslikelysharedbyallmammalslivingincomplexsocialgroups(e.g.,wolves,coyotes,elephants,dolphins,rats,chimpanzees).Theydefinemoralityas"asuiteofinterrelatedother-regardingbehaviorsthatcultivateandregulatecomplexinteractionswithinsocialgroups."Thissuiteofbehaviorsincludesempathy,reciprocity,altruism,cooperation,andasenseoffairness.[23]Inrelatedwork,ithasbeenconvincinglydemonstratedthatchimpanzeesshowempathyforeachotherinawidevarietyofcontexts.[24]Theyalsopossesstheabilitytoengageindeception,andalevelofsocialpolitics[25]prototypicalofourowntendenciesforgossipandreputationmanagement. ChristopherBoehm(1982)[26]hashypothesizedthattheincrementaldevelopmentofmoralcomplexitythroughouthominidevolutionwasduetotheincreasingneedtoavoiddisputesandinjuriesinmovingtoopensavannaanddevelopingstoneweapons.Othertheoriesarethatincreasingcomplexitywassimplyacorrelateofincreasinggroupsizeandbrainsize,andinparticularthedevelopmentoftheoryofmindabilities. Psychology[edit] Mainarticle:Moralpsychology Seealso:Kohlberg'sstagesofmoraldevelopmentandJeanPiaget§ Educationanddevelopmentofmorality Kohlberg'smodelofmoraldevelopment Inmodernmoralpsychology,moralityisconsideredtochangethroughpersonaldevelopment.Severalpsychologistshaveproducedtheoriesonthedevelopmentofmorals,usuallygoingthroughstagesofdifferentmorals.LawrenceKohlberg,JeanPiaget,andElliotTurielhavecognitive-developmentalapproachestomoraldevelopment;tothesetheoristsmoralityformsinaseriesofconstructivestagesordomains.IntheEthicsofcareapproachestablishedbyCarolGilligan,moraldevelopmentoccursinthecontextofcaring,mutuallyresponsiverelationshipswhicharebasedoninterdependence,particularlyinparentingbutalsoinsocialrelationshipsgenerally.[27]SocialpsychologistssuchasMartinHoffmanandJonathanHaidtemphasizesocialandemotionaldevelopmentbasedonbiology,suchasempathy.Moralidentitytheorists,suchasWilliamDamonandMordechaiNisan,seemoralcommitmentasarisingfromthedevelopmentofaself-identitythatisdefinedbymoralpurposes:thismoralself-identityleadstoasenseofresponsibilitytopursuesuchpurposes.OfhistoricalinterestinpsychologyarethetheoriesofpsychoanalystssuchasSigmundFreud,whobelievethatmoraldevelopmentistheproductofaspectsofthesuper-egoasguilt-shameavoidance. Asanalternativetoviewingmoralityasanindividualtrait,somesociologistsaswellassocial-anddiscursivepsychologistshavetakenuponthemselvestostudythein-vivoaspectsofmoralitybyexamininghowpersonsconductthemselvesinsocialinteraction.[28][29][30][31] Moralcognition[edit] Moralcognitionreferstocognitiveprocessesimplicatedinmoraljudgmentanddecisionmaking,andmoralaction.Itconsistsofseveraldomain-generalcognitiveprocesses,rangingfromperceptionofamorallysalientstimulustoreasoningwhenfacedwithamoraldilemma.Whileit'simportanttomentionthatthereisnotasinglecognitivefacultydedicatedexclusivelytomoralcognition,[32][33]characterizingthecontributionsofdomain-generalprocessestomoralbehaviorisacriticalscientificendeavortounderstandhowmoralityworksandhowitcanbeimproved.[34] Cognitivepsychologistsandneuroscientistsinvestigatetheinputstothesecognitiveprocessesandtheirinteractions,aswellashowthesecontributetomoralbehaviorbyrunningcontrolledexperiments.[35]Intheseexperimentsputativelymoralversusnonmoralstimuliarecomparedtoeachother,whilecontrollingforothervariablessuchascontentorworkingmemoryload.Often,thedifferentialneuralresponsetospecificallymoralstatementsorscenes,areexaminedusingfunctionalneuroimagingexperiments. Critically,thespecificcognitiveprocessesthatareinvolveddependontheprototypicalsituationthatapersonencounters.[36]Forinstance,whilesituationsthatrequireanactivedecisiononamoraldilemmamayrequireactivereasoning,animmediatereactiontoashockingmoralviolationmayinvolvequick,affect-ladenprocesses.Nonetheless,certaincognitiveskillssuchasbeingabletoattributementalstates—beliefs,intents,desires,emotionstooneself,andothersisacommonfeatureofabroadrangeofprototypicalsituations.Inlinewiththis,ameta-analysisfoundoverlappingactivitybetweenmoralemotionandmoralreasoningtasks,suggestingasharedneuralnetworkforbothtasks.[37]Theresultsofthismeta-analysis,however,alsodemonstratedthattheprocessingofmoralinputisaffectedbytaskdemands. Regardingtheissuesofmoralityinvideogames,somescholarsbelievethatbecauseplayersappearinvideogamesasactors,theymaintainadistancebetweentheirsenseofselfandtheroleofthegameintermsofimagination.Therefore,thedecision-makingandmoralbehaviorofplayersinthegamearenotrepresentingplayer'sMoraldogma.[38] Ithasbeenrecentlyfoundthatmoraljudgmentconsistsinconcurrentevaluationsofthreedifferentcomponentsthatalignwithpreceptsfromthreedominantmoraltheories(virtueethics,deontology,andconsequentialism):thecharacterofaperson(Agent-component,A);theiractions(Deed-component,D);andtheconsequencesbroughtaboutinthesituation(Consequences-component,C).[39]This,impliesthatvariousinputsofthesituationapersonencountersaffectmoralcognition. Neuroscience[edit] Seealso:Scienceofmorality Thebrainareasthatareconsistentlyinvolvedwhenhumansreasonaboutmoralissueshavebeeninvestigatedbymultiplequantitativelarge-scalemeta-analysesofthebrainactivitychangesreportedinthemoralneuroscienceliterature.[40][37][41][42]Theneuralnetworkunderlyingmoraldecisionsoverlapswiththenetworkpertainingtorepresentingothers'intentions(i.e.,theoryofmind)andthenetworkpertainingtorepresentingothers'(vicariouslyexperienced)emotionalstates(i.e.,empathy).Thissupportsthenotionthatmoralreasoningisrelatedtobothseeingthingsfromotherpersons'pointsofviewandtograspingothers'feelings.Theseresultsprovideevidencethattheneuralnetworkunderlyingmoraldecisionsisprobablydomain-global(i.e.,theremightbenosuchthingsasa"moralmodule"inthehumanbrain)andmightbedissociableintocognitiveandaffectivesub-systems.[40] Brainareas[edit] Anessential,sharedcomponentofmoraljudgmentinvolvesthecapacitytodetectmorallysalientcontentwithinagivensocialcontext.Recentresearchimplicatedthesaliencenetworkinthisinitialdetectionofmoralcontent.[43]Thesaliencenetworkrespondstobehaviorallysalientevents[44]andmaybecriticaltomodulatedownstreamdefaultandfrontalcontrolnetworkinteractionsintheserviceofcomplexmoralreasoninganddecision-makingprocesses. Theexplicitmakingofmoralrightandwrongjudgmentscoincideswithactivationintheventromedialprefrontalcortex(VMPC)whileintuitivereactionstosituationscontainingimplicitmoralissuesactivatesthetemporoparietaljunctionarea.[45][43] StimulationoftheVMPCbytranscranialmagneticstimulation,hasbeenshowntoinhibittheabilityofhumansubjectstotakeintoaccountintentwhenformingamoraljudgment.Accordingtothisinvestigation,TMSdidnotdisruptparticipants'abilitytomakeanymoraljudgment.Onthecontrary,moraljudgmentsofintentionalharmsandnon-harmswereunaffectedbyTMStoeithertheRTPJorthecontrolsite;presumably,however,peopletypicallymakemoraljudgmentsofintentionalharmsbyconsideringnotonlytheaction'sharmfuloutcomebuttheagent'sintentionsandbeliefs.SowhyweremoraljudgmentsofintentionalharmsnotaffectedbyTMStotheRTPJ?Onepossibilityisthatmoraljudgmentstypicallyreflectaweightedfunctionofanymorallyrelevantinformationthatisavailableatthetime.Basedonthisview,wheninformationconcerningtheagent'sbeliefisunavailableordegraded,theresultingmoraljudgmentsimplyreflectsahigherweightingofother morallyrelevantfactors(e.g.,outcome).Alternatively,followingTMStotheRTPJ,moraljudgmentsmightbemadeviaanabnormalprocessingroutethatdoesnottakebeliefintoaccount.Oneitheraccount,whenbeliefinformationisdegradedorunavailable,moraljudgmentsareshiftedtowardothermorallyrelevantfactors(e.g.,outcome).Forintentionalharmsandnon-harms,however,theoutcomesuggeststhesamemoraljudgmentastotheintention.Thus,theresearcherssuggestthatTMStotheRTPJdisruptedtheprocessingofnegativebeliefsforbothintentionalharmsandattemptedharms,butthecurrentdesignallowedtheinvestigatorstodetectthiseffectonlyinthecaseofattemptedharms,inwhichtheneutraloutcomesdidnotaffordharshmoraljudgmentsontheirown.[46] SimilarlyVMPC-impairedpersonswilljudgeanactionpurelyonitsoutcomeandareunabletotakeintoaccounttheintentofthataction.[47] Mirrorneurons[edit] Mirrorneuronsareneuronsinthebrainthatfirewhenanotherpersonisobserveddoingacertainaction.Theneuronsfireinimitationoftheactionbeingobserved,causingthesamemusclestoactminutelyintheobserverasareactinggrosslyinthepersonactuallyperformingtheaction.Researchonmirrorneurons,sincetheirdiscoveryin1996,[48]suggeststhattheymayhavearoletoplaynotonlyinactionunderstanding,butalsoinemotionsharingempathy.CognitiveneuroscientistJeanDecetythinksthattheabilitytorecognizeandvicariouslyexperiencewhatanotherindividualisundergoingwasakeystepforwardintheevolutionofsocialbehavior,andultimately,morality.[49]Theinabilitytofeelempathyisoneofthedefiningcharacteristicsofpsychopathy,andthiswouldappeartolendsupporttoDecety'sview.[50][51] Genetics[edit] Thissectionneedsexpansion.Youcanhelpbyaddingtoit.(May2022) A2022studyconductedbyscholarsMichaelZakharinandTimothyC.Bates,andpublishedbytheEuropeanJournalofPersonality,foundthatmoralfoundationshavesignificantgeneticbases.[52] Politics[edit] Ifmoralityistheanswertothequestion'howoughtwetolive'attheindividuallevel,politicscanbeseenasaddressingthesamequestionatthesociallevel,thoughthepoliticalsphereraisesadditionalproblemsandchallenges.[53]Itisthereforeunsurprisingthatevidencehasbeenfoundofarelationshipbetweenattitudesinmoralityandpolitics.Moralfoundationstheory,authoredbyJonathanHaidtandcolleagues,[54][55]hasbeenusedtostudythedifferencesbetweenliberalsandconservatives,inthisregard.[17][56]HaidtfoundthatAmericanswhoidentifiedasliberalstendedtovaluecareandfairnesshigherthanloyalty,respectandpurity.Self-identifiedconservativeAmericansvaluedcareandfairnesslessandtheremainingthreevaluesmore.Bothgroupsgavecarethehighestover-allweighting,butconservativesvaluedfairnessthelowest,whereasliberalsvaluedpuritythelowest.HaidtalsohypothesizesthattheoriginofthisdivisionintheUnitedStatescanbetracedtogeo-historicalfactors,withconservatismstrongestincloselyknit,ethnicallyhomogenouscommunities,incontrasttoport-cities,wheretheculturalmixisgreater,thusrequiringmoreliberalism. Groupmoralitydevelopsfromsharedconceptsandbeliefsandisoftencodifiedtoregulatebehaviorwithinacultureorcommunity.Variousdefinedactionscometobecalledmoralorimmoral.Individualswhochoosemoralactionarepopularlyheldtopossess"moralfiber",whereasthosewhoindulgeinimmoralbehaviormaybelabeledassociallydegenerate.Thecontinuedexistenceofagroupmaydependonwidespreadconformitytocodesofmorality;aninabilitytoadjustmoralcodesinresponsetonewchallengesissometimescreditedwiththedemiseofacommunity(apositiveexamplewouldbethefunctionofCistercianreforminrevivingmonasticism;anegativeexamplewouldbetheroleoftheDowagerEmpressinthesubjugationofChinatoEuropeaninterests).Withinnationalistmovements,therehasbeensometendencytofeelthatanationwillnotsurviveorprosperwithoutacknowledgingonecommonmorality,regardlessofitscontent. Politicalmoralityisalsorelevanttothebehaviorinternationallyofnationalgovernments,andtothesupporttheyreceivefromtheirhostpopulation.TheSentienceInstitute,co-foundedbyJacyReeseAnthis,analyzesthetrajectoryofmoralprogressinsocietyviatheframeworkofanexpandingmoralcircle.[57]NoamChomskystatesthat ...ifweadopttheprincipleofuniversality:ifanactionisright(orwrong)forothers,itisright(orwrong)forus.Thosewhodonotrisetotheminimalmorallevelofapplyingtothemselvesthestandardstheyapplytoothers—morestringentones,infact—plainlycannotbetakenseriouslywhentheyspeakofappropriatenessofresponse;orofrightandwrong,goodandevil. Infact,oneofthem,maybethemost,elementaryofmoralprinciplesisthatofuniversality,thatis,Ifsomething'srightforme,it'srightforyou;ifit'swrongforyou,it'swrongforme.Anymoralcodethatisevenworthlookingathasthatatitscoresomehow.[58] Religion[edit] Mainarticles:EthicsinreligionandMoralityandreligion Seealso:Divinecommandtheory,Divinelaw,Religiouslaw,Secularethics,andSecularmorality Religionandmoralityarenotsynonymous.Moralitydoesnotdependuponreligionalthoughforsomethisis"analmostautomaticassumption".[59]AccordingtoTheWestminsterDictionaryofChristianEthics,religionandmorality"aretobedefineddifferentlyandhavenodefinitionalconnectionswitheachother.Conceptuallyandinprinciple,moralityandareligiousvaluesystemaretwodistinctkindsofvaluesystemsoractionguides."[60] Positions[edit] Withinthewiderangeofmoraltraditions,religiousvaluesystemsco-existwithcontemporarysecularframeworkssuchasconsequentialism,freethought,humanism,utilitarianism,andothers.Therearemanytypesofreligiousvaluesystems.Modernmonotheisticreligions,suchasIslam,Judaism,Christianity,andtoacertaindegreeotherssuchasSikhismandZoroastrianism,definerightandwrongbythelawsandrulessetforthbytheirrespectivescripturesandasinterpretedbyreligiousleaderswithintherespectivefaith.Otherreligionsspanningpantheistictonontheistictendtobelessabsolute.Forexample,withinBuddhism,theintentionoftheindividualandthecircumstancesshouldbeaccountedforintheformofMerit,todetermineifanactionisrightorwrongtermed.[61]AfurtherdisparitybetweenthevaluesofreligioustraditionsispointedoutbyBarbaraStolerMiller,whostatesthat,inHinduism,"practically,rightandwrongaredecidedaccordingtothecategoriesofsocialrank,kinship,andstagesoflife.FormodernWesterners,whohavebeenraisedonidealsofuniversalityandegalitarianism,thisrelativityofvaluesandobligationsistheaspectofHinduismmostdifficulttounderstand".[62] Religionsprovidedifferentwaysofdealingwithmoraldilemmas.Forexample,thereisnoabsoluteprohibitiononkillinginHinduism,whichrecognizesthatit"maybeinevitableandindeednecessary"incertaincircumstances.[63]Inmonotheistictraditions,certainactsareviewedinmoreabsoluteterms,suchasabortionordivorce.[a]Religionisnotalwayspositivelyassociatedwithmorality.PhilosopherDavidHumestatedthat,"thegreatestcrimeshavebeenfound,inmanyinstances,tobecompatiblewithasuperstitiouspietyanddevotion;Henceitisjustlyregardedasunsafetodrawanyinferenceinfavorofaman'smorals,fromthefervororstrictnessofhisreligiousexercises,eventhoughhehimselfbelievethemsincere."[64] Religiousvaluesystemscanalsobeusedtojustifyactsthatarecontrarytocontemporarymorality,suchasmassacres,misogynyandslavery.Forexample,SimonBlackburnstatesthat"apologistsforHinduismdefendorexplainawayitsinvolvementwiththecastesystem,andapologistsforIslamdefendorexplainawayitsharshpenalcodeoritsattitudetowomenandinfidels".[65]InregardtoChristianity,hestatesthatthe"Biblecanbereadasgivingusacarteblancheforharshattitudestochildren,thementallyhandicapped,animals,theenvironment,thedivorced,unbelievers,peoplewithvarioussexualhabits,andelderlywomen",[66]andnotesmorallysuspectthemesintheBible'sNewTestamentaswell.[67][e]ElizabethAndersonlikewiseholdsthat"theBiblecontainsbothgoodandevilteachings",anditis"morallyinconsistent".[68]ChristianapologistsaddressBlackburn'sviewpoints[69]andconstruethatJewishlawsintheHebrewBibleshowedtheevolutionofmoralstandardstowardsprotectingthevulnerable,imposingadeathpenaltyonthosepursuingslaveryandtreatingslavesaspersonsandnotproperty.[70]HumanistslikePaulKurtzbelievethatwecanidentifymoralvaluesacrosscultures,evenifwedonotappealtoasupernaturaloruniversalistunderstandingofprinciples–valuesincludingintegrity,trustworthiness,benevolence,andfairness.Thesevaluescanberesourcesforfindingcommongroundbetweenbelieversandnonbelievers.[71] Empiricalanalyses[edit] Severalstudieshavebeenconductedontheempiricsofmoralityinvariouscountries,andtheoverallrelationshipbetweenfaithandcrimeisunclear.[b]A2001reviewofstudiesonthistopicfound"Theexistingevidencesurroundingtheeffectofreligiononcrimeisvaried,contested,andinconclusive,andcurrently,nopersuasiveanswerexistsastotheempiricalrelationshipbetweenreligionandcrime."[72]PhilZuckerman's2008book,SocietywithoutGod,basedonstudiesconductedduring14monthsinScandinaviain2005–2006,notesthatDenmarkandSweden,"whichareprobablytheleastreligiouscountriesintheworld,andpossiblyinthehistoryoftheworld",enjoy"amongthelowestviolentcrimeratesintheworld[and]thelowestlevelsofcorruptionintheworld".[73][c] Dozensofstudieshavebeenconductedonthistopicsincethetwentiethcentury.A2005studybyGregoryS.PaulpublishedintheJournalofReligionandSocietystatedthat,"Ingeneral,higherratesofbeliefinandworshipofacreatorcorrelatewithhigherratesofhomicide,juvenileandearlyadultmortality,STDinfectionrates,teenpregnancy,andabortionintheprosperousdemocracies,"and"Inallseculardevelopingdemocraciesacenturieslong-termtrendhasseenhomicideratesdroptohistoricallows"withtheexceptionsbeingtheUnitedStates(withahighreligiositylevel)and"theistic"Portugal.[74][d]Inaresponse,GaryJensenbuildsonandrefinesPaul'sstudy.[75]heconcludesthata"complexrelationship"existsbetweenreligiosityandhomicide"withsomedimensionsofreligiosityencouraginghomicideandotherdimensionsdiscouragingit".InApril2012,theresultsofastudywhichtestedtheirsubjects'pro-socialsentimentswerepublishedintheSocialPsychologicalandPersonalitySciencejournalinwhichnon-religiouspeoplehadhigherscoresshowingthattheyweremoremotivatedbytheirowncompassiontoperformpro-socialbehaviors.Religiouspeoplewerefoundtobelessmotivatedbycompassiontobecharitablethanbyaninnersenseofmoralobligation.[76][77] Seealso[edit] Ethics Integrity Appliedethics Appealtotradition Buddhistethics Christianethics Emotionalintelligence Ethicaldilemma Goodandevil Ideology Indexofethicsarticles Islamicethics Moralagency Moralcharacter Moralintelligence Moralpanic Moralskepticism Outlineofethics Valuetheory Worldview Notes[edit] a.^StudiesondivorceintheUnitedStatesdonebytheBarnaGroupsuggestedthatatheistsandagnosticshavelowerdivorceratesthanfaithgroupsonaverage(thoughsomefaithgroupshadlowerratesstill).[78][79]Thestudynotesthatfeweratheistsandagnosticsenterintomarriagerelativetofaith-basedindividuals. b.^Somestudiesappeartoshowpositivelinksintherelationshipbetweenreligiosityandmoralbehavior[80][81][82]Modernresearchincriminologyalsosuggestsaninverserelationshipbetweenreligionandcrime,[83]withsomestudiesestablishingthisconnection.[84]Ameta-analysisof60studiesonreligionandcrimeconcluded,"religiousbehaviorsandbeliefsexertamoderatedeterrenteffectonindividuals'criminalbehavior".[72] c.^ZuckermanidentifiesthatScandinavianshave"relativelyhighratesofpettycrimeandburglary",but"theiroverallratesofviolentcrime—suchasmurder,aggravatedassault,andrape—areamongthelowestonearth"(Zuckerman2008,pp.5–6). d.^Theauthorsalsostatethat"AfewhundredyearsagoratesofhomicidewereastronomicalinChristianEuropeandtheAmericancolonies,"[85]and"theleasttheisticseculardevelopingdemocraciessuchasJapan,France,andScandinaviahavebeenmostsuccessfulintheseregards."[86]Theyargueforapositivecorrelationbetweenthedegreeofpublicreligiosityinasocietyandcertainmeasuresofdysfunction,[87]ananalysispublishedlaterinthesamejournalarguesthatanumberofmethodologicalproblemsundermineanyfindingsorconclusionsintheresearch.[88] e.^BlackburnprovidesexamplessuchasthephraseinExodus22:18thathas"helpedtoburnalivetensorhundredsofthousandsofwomeninEuropeandAmerica":"Thoushaltnotsufferawitchtolive,"andnotesthattheOldTestamentGodapparentlyhas"noproblemswithaslave-owningsociety",considersbirthcontrolacrimepunishablebydeath,and"iskeenonchildabuse".[89]Othersinterpretthesepassagesdifferently,arguingforexamplethatJewishlawsshowtheevolutionofmoralstandardsinsociety:thatJewsactuallythreatenedthosewhopursuedforcedslaverywiththedeathpenalty,heldthatslaveswerepersonsinsteadofproperty,andprotectedtheminseveralways.[69][70][90] References[edit] ^Long,A.A.;Sedley,D.N.(1987).TheHellenisticPhilosophers:TranslationsofthePrincipalSourceswithPhilosophicalCommentary.Vol. 1.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.pp. 366–67.ISBN 978-0521275569. ^StanfordUniversity(2011)."TheDefinitionofMorality".StanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy.StanfordUniversity.Retrieved22March2014. 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Powell,K.(1997)."Correlatesofviolentandnonviolentbehavioramongvulnerableinner-cityyouths".FamilyandCommunityHealth.20(2):38–47.doi:10.1097/00003727-199707000-00006. ^Paul,GregoryS.(2005)."Cross-NationalCorrelationsofQuantifiableSocietalHealthwithPopularReligiosityandSecularismintheProsperousDemocracies:AFirstLook".JournalofReligionandSociety.Baltimore,MD.7:4–5,8.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2011-12-14. ^Paul,GregoryS.(2005)."Cross-NationalCorrelationsofQuantifiableSocietalHealthwithPopularReligiosityandSecularismintheProsperousDemocracies:AFirstLook".JournalofReligionandSociety.Baltimore,MD.7:11.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2011-12-14. ^Paul,GregoryS.(2005)."Cross-NationalCorrelationsofQuantifiableSocietalHealthwithPopularReligiosityandSecularismintheProsperousDemocracies:AFirstLook".JournalofReligionandSociety.Baltimore,MD.7.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2011-12-14. ^GersonMoreno-Riaño;MarkCalebSmith;ThomasMach(2006)."Religiosity,Secularism,andSocialHealth".JournalofReligionandSociety.CedarvilleUniversity.8.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2011-10-28. ^Blackburn,Simon(2001).Ethics:AVeryShortIntroduction.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.pp. 10,12.ISBN 978-0-19-280442-6. ^Westacott,Emrys."MoralRelativism".iep.utm.edu.Retrieved12May2018. Furtherreading[edit] Churchland,PatriciaSmith(2011).Braintrust :WhatNeuroscienceTellsUsaboutMorality.Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-691-13703-2.(ReviewedinTheMontrealReview) RichardDawkins,"Therootsofmorality:whyarewegood?",inTheGodDelusion,BlackSwan,2007(ISBN 978-0-552-77429-1). Harris,Sam(2010).TheMoralLandscape:HowScienceCanDetermineHumanValues.NewYork:FreePress.ISBN 978-1-4391-7121-9. Lunn,Arnold,andGarthLean(1964).TheNewMorality.London:BlandfordPress. JohnNewton,CompleteConductPrinciplesforthe21stCentury,2000.ISBN 0967370574. Prinz,Jesse(Jan–Feb2013)."MoralityisaCulturallyConditionedResponse".PhilosophyNow. SlaterS.J.,Thomas(1925)."BookI:Morality" .AmanualofmoraltheologyforEnglish-speakingcountries.BurnsOates&WashbourneLtd. Stace,WalterTerence(1937).TheConceptofMorals.NewYork:TheMacMillanCompany;Reprinted1975bypermissionofMacmillanPublishingCo.Inc.,andalsoreprintedbyPeterSmithPublisherInc,January1990.ISBN 978-0-8446-2990-2. Trompenaars,Fons(2003).DidthePedestrianDie?:InsightsfromtheWorld'sGreatestCultureGuru.Oxford:Capstone.ISBN 978-1-84112-436-0. Yandell,KeithE.(1973).God,man,andreligion:readingsinthephilosophyofreligion.McGraw-Hill.containingarticlesbyPatersonBrown: "ReligiousMorality",(fromMind,1963). "ReligiousMorality:aReplytoFlewandCampbell",(fromMind,1964). "GodandtheGood",(fromReligiousStudies,1967). AshleyWelch,"Virtuousbehaviorssanctionlatersins:peoplearequicktotreatthemselvesafteragooddeedorhealthyact"March4,2012. RobertoAndorno,"Doourmoraljudgementsneedtobeguidedbyprinciples?"CambridgeQuarterlyofHealthcareEthics,2012,21(4),457–65. Externallinks[edit] LookupmoralityinWiktionary,thefreedictionary. WikiquotehasquotationsrelatedtoMorality. WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoMorality. 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