Adequate Yearly Progress - Wikipedia

Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) is a measurement defined by the United States federal No Child Left Behind Act that allows the U.S. Department of Education ... AdequateYearlyProgress FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch U.S.publicschoolmetricofstandardizedtestperformance Thisarticleiswrittenlikeapersonalreflection,personalessay,orargumentativeessaythatstatesaWikipediaeditor'spersonalfeelingsorpresentsanoriginalargumentaboutatopic.Pleasehelpimproveitbyrewritingitinanencyclopedicstyle.(February2013)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) AdequateYearlyProgress(AYP)isameasurementdefinedbytheUnitedStatesfederalNoChildLeftBehindActthatallowstheU.S.DepartmentofEducationtodeterminehoweverypublicschoolandschooldistrictinthecountryisperformingacademicallyaccordingtoresultsonstandardizedtests.AsdefinedbyNationalCouncilonMeasurementinEducation(NCME),AYPis"theamountofannualachievementgrowthtobeexpectedbystudentsinaparticularschool,district,orstateintheU.S.federalaccountabilitysystem,NoChildLeftBehind(NCLB)."[1]AYPhasbeenidentifiedasoneofthesourcesofcontroversysurroundingGeorgeW.Bushadministration'sElementaryandSecondaryEducationAct.[2]PrivateschoolsarenotrequiredtomakeAYP.[3][4] Contents 1Description 2Purpose 3Details 3.1Requirements 3.2Assessment 3.3Successfulprogress 3.4Unsuccessfulprogress 4StrategiesforimprovingAYP 5Controversy 6NCLBeffectonteacherquality 7PresentstateofNCLB 8Seealso 9References 10Externallinks Description[edit] TheinadequateNoChildLeftBehindActof2001,Sec.1111(b)(F),requiresthat"eachstateshallestablishatimelineforadequateyearlyprogress.Thetimelineshallensurethatnotlaterthan12yearsafterthe2001-2002schoolyear,allstudentsineachgroupdescribedinsubparagraph(C)(v)willmeetorexceedtheState'sstandards."Thesetimelinesaredevelopedbystateeducationagenciesworkingunderguidancefromthefederalgovernment.TheNoChildLeftBehindAct(NCLB)isthelawusedastheprimarystatutegoverningthefederalgovernment'sroleineducation. Thefederalgovernment'sroleinthisareawasearlierdefinedundertheElementaryandSecondaryEducationAct(ESEA).TheESEAstatedthatitspurposewastostrengthenandimproveeducationalqualityandeducationalopportunitiesinthenation'selementaryandsecondaryschools.Thesegoalsweretobeachievedthroughfinancialassistancetolocaleducationalagenciesfortheeducationofchildrenoflow-incomefamiliesorwithdisabilities.[5]In2001,ESEAwasmodifiedandrenamedtheNoChildLeftBehindAct.[6]StrengtheningandimprovingtheeducationofelementaryandsecondaryschoolstudentsremainsthegoalofNCLBandtheAYPmeasurement. AccordingtotheDepartmentofEducation,AYPisadiagnostictoolthatdetermineshowschoolsneedtoimproveandwherefinancialresourcesshouldbeallocated.FormerU.S.SecretaryofEducationRodPaigewrote,"ThestatutegivesStatesandlocaleducationalagenciessignificantflexibilityinhowtheydirectresourcesandtailorinterventionstotheneedsofindividualschoolsidentifiedforimprovement...schoolsareheldaccountablefortheachievementofallstudents,notjustaveragestudentperformance."[7] TheNCLBmakesprovisionsforschoolsthatdonotdemonstrateadequateyearlyprogress.ThosethatdonotmeetAYPfortwoyearsinarowareidentifiedas"schoolsinneedofimprovement"andaresubjecttoimmediateinterventionsbytheStateEducationAgencyintheirstate.Firststepsincludetechnicalassistanceandthen,accordingtotheDepartmentofEducation,"moreseriouscorrectiveactions"occuriftheschoolfailstomakeAYP.[8] Purpose[edit] ThepurposeoftheNoChildLeftBehindActistoensurethatallchildrenhaveafair,equal,andsignificantopportunitytoobtainahigh-qualityeducationandreach.Thisisensuredthroughtheuseofacademicassessments,teacherpreparationandtraining,rigorouscurriculumandadequateandproperinstructionalmaterialthatwillinturnaidinperformanceonthechallengingstateacademicstandardsthatallstudentsaretomeetwithproficiency.Thisprocessismeanttohelpmeettheeducationalneedsoflow-achievingchildreninthenation'spoverty-strickenschools,andhaveeveryschoolperformingatanationalstandardlevel.Ifthisisachieved,thenNCLBissaidtohave"closedthegap".Thismeansthattheachievementgapbetweenhigh-andlow-performingschoolsandchildrenwillbelessprominentandallwillbeachievingatthesamelevelandstandardthroughoutthenation.Thus,therewillbenochildleftbehindandnoschoolsidentifiedas"schoolsinneedofimprovement".[9] Details[edit] Requirements[edit] Allkindergarten-through-twelfth-gradeschoolsarerequiredtodemonstrateAYPintheareasofreading/languagearts,mathematics,graduationratesforhighschoolsanddistricts,andatleastoneotheracademicindicator.[10]StatesareinchargeofdevelopingtheirowncriteriaformeetingAYPandmustsubmitthemforapproval.Uponreceipt,allcriteriaprovidedwillbepeerreviewedbyapanelincludingrepresentatives,parents,teachersandstateandlocaleducationalagencies.Afterreview,thestateswillreceivefeedbackandrecommendationsfrompanelistsonhowtobetteraligntheircriteriawiththestatuteofNoChildLeftBehind.Theserequirementsincludetenspecificguidelines: Asinglestatewideaccountabilitysystemwhichisappliedtoallpublicschoolsandlocaleducationagencies. Thestateaccountabilitysystemmustincludeallpublicschoolstudents. Astate'sdefinitionofAYPmustbebasedonexpectationsforgrowthinstudentachievementthatincludesthatallstudentswillbeproficientinreadingandmathby2013–2014. Astatemustmakeannualdecisionsabouttheachievementofallpublicschoolsandlocaleducationagencies. Allpublicschoolsandlocaleducationagencieswillbeheldaccountablefortheachievementofallindividualsubgroups. Astate'sdefinitionofAYPmustbebasedprimarilyonthestate'sacademicassessments. Astate'sdefinitionofAYPmustincludegraduationratesforhighschools,aswellasanadditionalindicatorformiddleandelementaryschools,whichmaybeselectedbythestates(suchasattendancerates). AYPmustbebasedonreading/languageartsandmathematicsachievementobjectives. Astate'saccountabilitysystemmustbestatisticallyvalidandreliable. TomakeAYPasaschool,astatemustensurethatithasassessedatleast95%ofstudentsineachsubgroup(specialeducation,Englishlanguagelearners,lowincome,race/ethnicity)enrolled.[11] Currently,schoolsareallowedtoappealtheirAYPfindingstotheirStateEducationAgencyand/ortheU.S.DepartmentofEducation,ifapplicable.AppealshavebeenmadeinaccountofstandardizedtestresultsanddatacollectedbytestingcompaniessuchasEducationalTestingService.[12] Assessment[edit] TheNCLBrequiresthatstatesusestandardizedassessmentsinordertomeasureAYP.TheseassessmentsallowstateeducationagenciestodeveloptargetstartinggoalsforAYP.Afterthosearedeveloped,statesmustincreasestudentachievementingradualincrementsinorderfor100percentofthestudentstobecomeproficientonstateassessmentsbythe2013–14schoolyear.[13]TheIllinoisDepartmentofEducationreports,"TheNCLBActisveryprescriptivewithregardtohowthisistobedone–verylittleflexibilityisaffordedtostates.Thesameprocesswasusedtoestablishstartingpointsforreadingandmath."Usingassessmentdatafrom2002,theU.S.DepartmentofEducationdeterminedwhatspecificpercentagesofstudentseachstateisrequiredtomakeproficientineachsubjectarea.SpecialconsiderationsweremadeforstudentswithlimitedEnglishproficiencyandindividualswithdisabilities.Oncethosepercentagesweredetermined,eachStateDepartmentofEducationisrequiredtoensurethestandardsarethesameforeachpublicschool,districtandsubgroupofstudents,irrespectiveofdifferences.[14] Successfulprogress[edit] AdequateYearlyProgressrequiresthateverypublicschoolcompletethreerequirementsannually.Requirementsforthepercentageofgrowthisdeterminedonastate-by-statebasis.[15]InIllinoisthoserequirementsinclude: Atleast95percentofallstudentsaretestedforreadingandmathematics. Atleast95percentofallstudentsmeettheminimumannualtargetformeetingorexceedingstandardsforreadingandmathematics. Atleast95percentofallstudentsmeettheminimumannualtargetforattendancerateforelementaryandmiddleschoolsorgraduationrateforhighschools.[14] Additionally,stateeducationagenciesmustdeterminetheyearlyprogressofdistrictsandidentifydistrictsinneedofimprovement.[16]Somestates,includingMissouri,haveloweredstandardsinordertoassurethesuccessoftheirschoolsanddistrictsmeetingAYP.[17] Unsuccessfulprogress[edit] EverystateeducationagencyisrequiredtodeterminewhichschoolsdonotmeetAYPeveryyear.However,aspecificdesignationbytheU.S.DepartmentofEducationcalled"Federalschoolimprovementstatus"appliesonlytoschoolsthatreceiveTitleIfunds.Stateeducationagenciesarerequiredtodeterminewhatlargergoalsarerequiredofeveryschoolastheyfailtoperformannually.[18] IfTitleIschoolsdonotmeetAYPfortwoconsecutiveyears,theyareplacedin"Choice"SchoolImprovementStatus,whichmeanstheymustdevelopanimprovementplan,providestudentstheoptiontotransfertoadifferentschoolandprovidethemtransportationtogetthere,andusepartoftheirTitleIfundsforprofessionaldevelopmentfortheirteachersandstaff.IfaschooldoesnotmakeAYPforthreeconsecutiveyears,theywillbein"SupplementalServices"SchoolImprovementStatus,whichmeansthatinadditiontoallthe"Choice"requirementsabove,theymustalsousesomeoftheirTitleIfundstosupportstudentsbyprovidingtutoringorafter-schoolprogramsfromastate-approvedprovider.IfaschoolfailsAYPforfouryearsinarowtheyenter"CorrectiveAction"ImprovementStatus,wheretheymustprovideboth"Choice"and"SupplementalServices",aswellaschooseoneofthefollowing:replaceresponsiblestaff,implementanewcurriculum,decreaseaschool'smanagementauthority,appointanexternalexperttoadvisetheschool,orrestructuretheinternalorganizationoftheschool.[19]Lastly,ifaschoolfailsAYPforfiveyearsormore,theymustimplementoneofthefollowing: Chartering:closingandreopeningasapubliccharterschool Reconstitution:replacingschoolstaff,includingtheprincipal,relevanttothefailureintheschool Contracting:contractingwithanoutsideentitytooperatetheschool Statetakeovers:turningtheschooloperationsovertothestateeducationagency Anyothermajorgovernancerestructuring:engaginginanotherformofmajorrestructuringthatmakesfundamentalreforms[20] These"othermajorgovernancerestructuring"strategiesweremostpopularinrestructuringschoolsin2007–2008,andallowschoolstodoavarietyofthingstoimprovetheirschoolssuchasnarrowthegraderange,re-openasathemeschool,closetheschool,createsmallerlearningcommunities,orcreatetheirownoptionthatisnotprovidedbytheDepartmentofEducation.[19] TheoptionofextendingNCLB-requiredsanctionstonon-TitleIschoolsdoesexist;however,thereislittlecurrentresearchindicatingtheimplementationofthispractice.[21] StrategiesforimprovingAYP[edit] StateeducationagenciesacrosstheUnitedStateshavedevelopednumerousstrategiesdesignedtoimproveAYP.Forinstance,stepstakenbytheGeorgiaDepartmentofEducationincludenewandmorerigorouscurriculum,theplacementof"graduationspecialists"ineachhighschoolacrossthestate,comprehensivehighschoolredesignfocusedonrigorousandrelevanteducation,andintegratedtechnologythroughoutlearning,includingtheGeorgiaVirtualSchoolandafreeonlineSATprepcourse.[22] However,outsidecriticsandanalystscontinuetomaketheirownsuggestionsonimprovementsforAdequateYearlyProgress.OneexampleofthisisRobertManwaring(aSeniorPolicyAnalystatEducationSector),whohasmanysuggestionsatthefederal,stateandlocallevels.Onthefederallevel,ManwaringbelievesthatNoChildLeftBehindhasbeentoo"hands-off"andthatstateshavebeenavoidinghardchoicessuchasreplacingpeopleinfailingschools.Hebelievesinterventioninlow-performingdistrictshasbeentooslowtooccur.Hebelievesthekeyisforthefederalgovernmenttoinsistonheavieroversightfromthestatesandtoproposeshortertimelinesforquickeractionstobetakenwithconsistentlyfailingschools.Hebelievesthefederalgovernmentshouldcontinuetoinvestinschoolimprovement,butmovefroma"formula-drivenprogram"tocompetitivegrants,whichwillrewardschoolswhomakedrasticimprovementinlow-performingschools.Hebelievesthatstatesshouldbeinchargeofapprovingthe"othermajorrestructuringplans"(asdiscussedabove)forschools,inordertoensurethattheyaretherightstepstodrasticallyimprovestudentperformance.Lastly,hebelievesTitleIfunding"comparability"requirementsshouldbechangedtomakesurethatallTitleIschoolsreceiveanaccurateamountofstateandlocalfunding. Onthestatelevel,Manwaringbelievesthatstatesarereluctanttointerveneinlow-performingschools,andthatmanystatedepartmentslacktheexperienceorcapacitytofacilitateschoolturnaroundanyway.Hesuggeststhatstatesshouldidentifyschoolsinneedofimprovement,andrequiredistrictstoimplementaninterventionmodel,duringwhichthestatewillprovidesupportandmonitorprogress.Hebelievestheyshouldtakecontrolofcharterschoolsbyensuringeffectivecharteroversight,closinglow-performingcharterschoolsandprovidingafairamountoffundingandfacilitiestosuccessfulcharters.Lastly,hestatesshouldmonitorschoolrestructuringcloselyandbepreparedtostepinwhenneeded. Onthelocallevel,Manwaringbelievesthatsincelocalschooldistrictsareclosesttotheschools,andhavetheflexibilitynecessarytoactimmediatelyforstudents,theyshouldchangetheirpoliciestoensurethatschoolshaveanequalamountofresources,andtoreinforcethefactthatlong-termfailureisunacceptable.Hesuggeststhatdistrictspushforcollectivebargainingagreementsthatallowforimprovingthestaffatlow-performingschools,includingevaluationsystemsthatallowforthetimelyremovalofpoorperformingteachers.Healsobelievesthatschoolleadersmustbeabletomakeradicalchangesquicklyinordertoturnaroundlow-performingschools,withhighteacherinvestmentinsuchpolicies.Lastly,hebelievesthatschooldistrictsneedtobepreparedtoestablishnewschoolsinordertoclosethelowest-performingschoolsovertime.[19] Controversy[edit] Schoolsacrossthecountryhaverestructuredaccordingtostandardsdictatedbythefederalgovernment,ratherthanlocalneeds.Aprincipalofonesuchschoolremarked,"PuttingalloftheneediestspecialeducationstudentsinafewschoolsseemstocreateinsolublechallengesunderNoChildLeftBehind."Thosedeterminationsoftencomedowntotheperformanceofsmallnumbersofstudentsthatdonotreflecttheprogressofthewholeschool.[23]Asof2006,theProgramforInternationalStudentAssessment(PISA),whichperformsmathandreadingassessmentsofnationaleducationsystems,doesnotincludespecialeducationstudentsasasignificantportionoftheirassessmentpopulation.[24] Criticismsarebeingmetwithaseriesofinnovationsonthestatelevel.In2007,thetopofficialoftheOhioDepartmentofEducationdiagnosedthatNCLB"paidnoattentiontowhetherstudentsbelowproficientweremakingstrides,or(those)aboveproficiency."Ohioisproposingamoresubtle"growthmodel"thatwouldallowschoolstobetterdemonstrateprogresswithoutjeopardizingpastacademicaccomplishments.[25] AnothercontroversialconcernofNCLBisthatitproducesunintendedconsequencesonotherschoolsubjects.SinceAYPisbasedmostlyonstandardizedstatetestingonthesubjectsofmathandreading,itisbelievedthatthismaycauseschoolstoneglectothersubjects.Also,NCLBisthoughttoprovideteacherswiththemotivetofocusenergyintheclassroomtowardsthetypesofquestionsthatstudentswillfaceonproficiency-basedtestsasopposedtootherquestionsandtopicsthatshouldbeaddressedequally.[26] TheNewYorkStateDepartmentofEducationisamongagroupofstateeducationagenciesthathavevoicedsupportforAYP.[27] NCLBeffectonteacherquality[edit] NCLBwasnotsetinplacejusttomakesurestudentsmeetproficiency,butalsotoencourageteacherstobecomemorequalifiedandagreetoworkingindifferentenvironmentsdependingonneed.Stateshavedevelopedavarietyofincentivestoencouragethis.Theseincludetuitionbenefits,loanforgivenessprograms,andhousingassistance,toencouragepeopletoentertheprofessioningeneral,tobettertheirqualifications,ortoworkinparticularschoolsettings.NCLBrequiredthatIllinoisstoptheuseofunqualifiedteachersandinplaceofferedmoretrainingsothatteacherscouldcomebackunderNCLBguidelines.Afterthis,employmentofnot-fullycertifiedteacherswasmuchlessprevalentevenintheschoolswithhighestpovertyandnumbersofminorities,wherenot-fullycertifiedteachersaremostseen.[28] PresentstateofNCLB[edit] OnJanuary8,2002,GeorgeW.BushsignedtheNoChildLeftBehindAct.AccordingtoArneDuncan,U.S.SecretaryofEducation,ithascreatedanartificialgoalofproficiencythatactuallyencouragedstatestolowertheirstandardstomakeiteasierforstudentstomeetgoalsandbringtheschooltomeetAYP.Duncanalsobelievesthatthiskindofsystemnarrowscurriculumandmislabelsschoolsasfailing,eventhoughtheymaybedemonstratingacademicgrowthinotherwaysotherthanstatetests.OvertheyearssinceNCLBhasbeeninplace,44stateshavemadestridesinraisingtheirstandardsbutarenowhavingtoexplainwhytheirschoolsare"failing".Tofixthis,thesecretaryofstatebelievesthelawneedstobelessprescriptiveandallowschooldistrictstocreatetheirownimprovementplansuniquetotheirneeds.In2015,theObamaadministrationofferedstatesflexibilityfromNCLBinexchangefortheirownfairandflexibleplanstoraisestandards.Sofar,42stateshaveshowninterestinthissystemandarecurrentlyworkingwiththeDepartmentofEducation.Congress'seffortstoreauthorizeNCLB[29]ultimatelyledin2015totheEveryStudentSucceedsAct,whichreplacedit,modifyingbutnotreplacingprovisionsrelatedtostandardizedtesting. Seealso[edit] EducationintheUnitedStates References[edit] ^NationalCouncilonMeasurementinEducationhttp://www.ncme.org/ncme/NCME/Resource_Center/Glossary/NCME/Resource_Center/Glossary1.aspx?hkey=4bb87415-44dc-4088-9ed9-e8515326a061#anchorAArchived2017-07-22attheWaybackMachine ^NewYorkStateDepartmentofEducation.(nd)TheGeorgeW.BushYears:NCLB-AdequateYearlyProgress.[permanentdeadlink]States'ImpactonFederalEducationPolicy. ^(nd)"NoEducatorLeftBehind:PrivateSchools".ArchivedOctober9,2009,attheWaybackMachineEducationWorld.Retrieved7/5/07. ^(2003)"AdequateYearlyProgress:NorthLaytonJuniorHighResults."ArchivedFebruary9,2006,attheWaybackMachineDavisSchoolDistrict,Utah.Retrieved7/5/07. ^"Elementary&SecondaryEducationAct(ESEA)(P.L.89-10)"(PDF).Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)onMay14,2009. ^Dillon,Sam."NoChildLeftBehindAct".TheNewYorkTimes. ^Paige,R.(2002)"KeyPolicyLettersSignedbytheEducationSecretaryorDeputySecretary,"U.S.DepartmentofEducation.7/25/02.Retrieved6/31/07. ^(nd)["TheFactsAbout...MakingGainsEveryYear".]U.S.DepartmentofEducation.Retrieved6/31/07. ^"TitleI.SEC.1001.StatementofPurpose". ^(nd)[1].USDepartmentofEducation.Retrieved5/14/2013 ^(nd)KeyPolicyLettersSignedbytheEducationSecretaryorDeputySecretary[2].USDepartmentofEducation.Retrieved10/29/11. ^(2006)2005-2006AccountabilityProgressReporting.ArchivedJuly3,2007,attheWaybackMachineCaliforniaDepartmentofEducation.Retrieved6/29/07. ^(nd)"AdequateYearlyProgress."ArchivedJune27,2007,attheWaybackMachineMichiganDepartmentofEducation.Retrieved6/29/07. ^ab(nd)FrequentlyaskedquestionsaboutAYP.Archived2007-11-23attheWaybackMachineIllinoisStateBoardofEducation.Retrieved6/29/07. ^Popham,W.J.(2004)"Chapter2:AnnualYearlyProgress(AYP):Littleletters,bigimpact,"America's"Failing"Schools:HowParentsandTeachersCanCopewithNoChildLeftBehind.Routledge.p.22. ^(2002)"NoChildLeftBehind:Adesktopreference."DIANEPublishing.p.17. ^Clark,C.(2004)"Statelowersteststandardtomeetfederalguidelines,"SoutheastMissourian9/15/04.Retrieved6/30/07. ^Case,A.G.(2004)HowtoGettheMostReformforYourReformMoney.Rowman&Littlefield.p.55. ^abcManwaring,Robert.(2010)RESTRUCTURING‘RESTRUCTURING’:ImprovingInterventionsforLow-PerformingSchoolsandDistricts.ArchivedApril2,2015,attheWaybackMachineRetrieved10/29/11. ^CCSRI.(2008)"Archivedcopy"(PDF).Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)onJanuary15,2009.RetrievedJune27,2009.{{citeweb}}:CS1maint:archivedcopyastitle(link)"SchoolRestructuringWhatWorksWhen?AGuideforEducationLeaders."Retrieved6/24/09. ^EducationCommissionoftheStates.(2004)"Indicator2:AdequateYearlyProgress(AYP)"ArchivedAugust4,2007,attheWaybackMachineReporttotheNation.Author.Retrieved6/29/07. ^(2006)Almost100SchoolsLoseNeedsImprovementLabel".ArchivedOctober17,2007,attheWaybackMachineGeorgiaDepartmentofEducation.Retrieved6/29/07. ^Marshall,T.(2007)"Twoviewsonschoolgrades:Federalreportsshowprogress,butstategradesslipatseveralschoolsbasedonFCAT."St.PetersburgTimes.6/30/07.Retrieved6/30/07. ^"PISA2006andtheParticipationofStudentswithSpecialEducationalNeeds".OECD/JointResearchCentre-EuropeanCommission,StudentswithDisabilities,LearningDifficultiesandDisadvantagesintheBalticStates,SouthEasternEuropeandMalta:EducationalPoliciesandIndicators,OECDPublishing.Retrieved5/9/12. ^Seeton,M.G.(2007)"Statemodelmaychangeassessmentofstudentprogress"ArchivedSeptember30,2007,attheWaybackMachine.CantonRep.com.6/24/07.Retrieved6/29/07. ^"EvaluatingNCLB".[permanentdeadlink] ^NoChildLeftBehindArchived2007-05-09attheWaybackMachine.FederalLegislationandEducationinNewYorkState2005.NewYorkStateEducationAgency.Retrieved6/7/07. ^"TheChangingDistributionofTeacherQualificationsAcrossSchools:AStatewidePerspectivePost-NCLB".[permanentdeadlink] ^"After10years,it'stimeforanewNCLB".ArchivedfromtheoriginalonSeptember9,2015. Externallinks[edit] ResourcesonAYP.EducationCommissionoftheStates. Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Adequate_Yearly_Progress&oldid=1113022027" Categories:UnitedStatesfederaleducationlegislationEducationreformStandards-basededucationHiddencategories:WebarchivetemplatewaybacklinksAllarticleswithdeadexternallinksArticleswithdeadexternallinksfromOctober2016ArticleswithpermanentlydeadexternallinksCS1maint:archivedcopyastitleArticleswithdeadexternallinksfromSeptember2017UseAmericanEnglishfromMarch2019AllWikipediaarticleswritteninAmericanEnglishArticleswithshortdescriptionShortdescriptionisdifferentfromWikidataUsemdydatesfromMarch2019WikipediaarticleswithstyleissuesfromFebruary2013Allarticleswithstyleissues Navigationmenu Personaltools NotloggedinTalkContributionsCreateaccountLogin Namespaces ArticleTalk English Views ReadEditViewhistory More Search Navigation MainpageContentsCurrenteventsRandomarticleAboutWikipediaContactusDonate Contribute HelpLearntoeditCommunityportalRecentchangesUploadfile Tools WhatlinkshereRelatedchangesUploadfileSpecialpagesPermanentlinkPageinformationCitethispageWikidataitem Print/export DownloadasPDFPrintableversion Languages العربية Editlinks