Housewife - Wikipedia

A housewife (also known as a homemaker or a stay-at-home mother/mum) is a woman whose work ; Webster's Dictionary defines a housewife as a married ... Housewife FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Marriedwomanwhoseoccupationisrunningormanagingthefamily'shome Forotheruses,seeHousewife(disambiguation). Seealso:Househusband Thisarticlehasmultipleissues.Pleasehelpimproveitordiscusstheseissuesonthetalkpage.(Learnhowandwhentoremovethesetemplatemessages) Thisarticlemaylackfocusormaybeaboutmorethanonetopic.Inparticular,thearticlecoversbothhousewivesandworkingwives,andshouldbesplit.Pleasehelpimprovethisarticle,possiblybysplittingthearticleand/orbyintroducingadisambiguationpage,ordiscussthisissueonthetalkpage.(April2019) Ithasbeensuggestedthatthisarticleshouldbesplitintoanewarticletitledtwo-incomefamily.(discuss)(April2019) ThisarticlemaybeexpandedwithtexttranslatedfromthecorrespondingarticleinSwedish.(June2016)Click[show]forimportanttranslationinstructions. 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(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) YoungHousewife,oilpaintingoncanvasbyAlexeyTyranov,currentlyhousedattheRussianMuseuminStPetersburg,Russia(1840s) Ahousewife(alsoknownasahomemakerorastay-at-homemother/mum)isawomanwhoseworkisrunningormanagingherfamily'shome— housekeeping,whichincludescaringforherchildren;cleaningandmaintainingthehome;making,buyingand/ormendingclothesforthefamily;buying,cooking,andstoringfoodforthefamily;buyinggoodsthatthefamilyneedsforeverydaylife;partiallyorsolelymanagingthefamilybudget;—andwhoisnotemployedoutsidethehome(acareerwoman).[1] Webster'sDictionarydefinesahousewifeasamarriedwomanwhoisinchargeofherhousehold.TheBritishChambers'sTwentiethCenturyDictionary(1901)definesahousewifeas"themistressofahousehold;afemaledomesticmanager;apocketsewingkit".[2](Asmallsewingkitissometimescalledahuswif,[3]: 115 housewifeorhussif.)[4] Contents 1Sociologyandeconomics 1.1Traditionalsocieties 1.2Modernsociety 1.3Education 2Bycountry 2.1InChina 2.2InIndia 2.3InNorthKorea 2.4InSweden 2.5IntheUnitedKingdom 2.5.115th-17thcenturies 2.5.219th-20thcenturies 2.6IntheUnitedStates 3History 4Selfemployed 5Songsaboutthehousewife'slot 6Seealso 7References 8Furtherreading 9Externallinks Sociologyandeconomics[edit] Somefeminists[5][6]andnon-feministeconomists(particularlyproponentsofhistoricalmaterialism,themethodologicalapproachofMarxisthistoriography)notethatthevalueofhousewives'workisignoredinstandardformulationsofeconomicoutput,suchasGDPoremploymentfigures.Ahousewifetypicallyworksmanyunpaidhoursaweekandoftendependsonincomefromherhusband'sworkforfinancialsupport. Traditionalsocieties[edit] SouthernPaiutesatMoapa,Nevada,wearingtraditionalPaiutebaskethats,whilethebabyisswaddledintraditionalrabbitrobesinaPaiutecradleboard. AhousewifeinYendi,Kumasi,Ghana,pourswaterintoamealasherchildrenplay,1957 Insocietiesofhuntersandgatherers,likethetraditionalsocietyoftheAustralianaboriginalpeople,themenoftenhuntedanimalsformeatwhilethewomengatherotherfoodssuchasgrain,fruitandvegetables.Oneofthereasonsforthisdivisionoflaboristhatitismucheasiertolookafterababywhilegatheringfoodthanwhilehuntingafast-movinganimal.Evenwhenhomeswereverysimple,andtherewerefewpossessionstomaintain,menandwomendiddifferentjobs.[citationneeded] Inruralsocietieswherethemainsourceofworkisfarming,womenhavealsotakencareofgardensandanimalsaroundthehouse,generallyhelpingmenwithheavyworkwhenajobneededtobedonequickly,usuallybecauseoftheseason. Examplesoftheheavyworkinvolvingfarmingthatatraditionalhousewifeinaruralsocietywoulddoare: Pickingfruitwhenitisripeformarket Plantingriceinapaddyfield Harvestingandstackinggrain Cuttinghayforanimals Inruralstudies,thewordhousewifeisoccasionallyusedasatermfor"awomanwhodoesthemajorityofthechoreswithinafarm'scompound",asopposedtofieldandlivestockwork.[citationneeded]. Whethertheproductivecontributionsofwomenwereconsidered"work"variedbytimeandculture.Throughoutmuchofthe20thcentury,thewomenworkingonafamilyfarm,nomatterhowmuchworktheydid,wouldbecountedintheUScensusasbeingunemployed,whereasthemendoingthesameor(evenless)workwerecountedasbeingemployedasfarmers.[7] Modernsociety[edit] Acareerwoman,asopposedtoahousewife,mayfollowamommytrackorasharedearning/sharedparentingtrack. Regardingfamilysize,astudyofthreeMexicancitiesdonein1991cametotheconclusionthattherewasnosignificantdifferenceinthenumberofchildrenin"housewifefamilies"comparedtothosefamilieswithwomenwhoworkedoutsidethehome.[8] Aresearchbasedon7733respondentswhowereaged18–65andlegallymarriedwomenin20Europeancountriesshowedmenandwomensharelesshouseworkincountriesthatpubliclysupportgenderequality.Onthecontrary,womendidmorehouseworkthanmen.[9] Full-timehomemakersinmoderntimesusuallyshareincomeproducedbymembersofthehouseholdwhoareemployed;wage-earnersworkingfull-timebenefitfromtheunpaidworkprovidedbythehomemaker;otherwise,theperformanceofsuchwork(childcare,cooking,housecleaning,teaching,transporting,etc.)couldbeahouseholdexpense.[10]USstateswithcommunitypropertyrecognizejointownershipofmaritalpropertyandincome,and,unlessaprenuptialorpostnuptialagreementisfollowed,mostmaritalhouseholdsintheUSoperateasajointfinancialteamandfiletaxesjointly. Education[edit] Themethod,necessity,andextentofeducatinghousewiveshasbeendebatedsinceatleastthe20thcentury.[11][12][13][14] Bycountry[edit] Femalelaborforceparticipationrate,ages15-64(WorldBank/ILO,2019) InChina[edit] InimperialChina(excludingperiodsoftheTangdynasty),womenwereboundtohomemakingbythedoctrinesofConfucianismandculturalnorms.Generally,girlsdidnotattendschooland,therefore,spentthedaydoinghouseholdchoreswiththeirmothersandfemalerelatives(forexample,cookingandcleaning).Inmostcases,thehusbandwasaliveandabletowork,sothewifewasalmostalwaysforbiddentotakeajobandmainlyspentherdaysathomeordoingotherdomestictasks.AsConfucianismspreadacrossEastAsia,thissocialnormwasalsoobservedinKorea,JapanandVietnam.AsfootbindingbecamecommonaftertheSongDynasty,manywomenlosttheabilitytoworkoutside.[citationneeded] AfterthefoundingoftheRepublicofChinain1911,thesenormsweregraduallyloosenedandmanywomenwereabletoentertheworkforce.Shortlythereafter,agrowingnumberoffemalesbegantobepermittedtoattendschools.StartingwiththeruleofthePeople'sRepublicofChinain1949,allwomenwerefreedfromcompulsoryfamilyroles.DuringtheGreatLeapForwardandCulturalRevolution,somewomenevenworkedinfieldsthatweretraditionallyreservedformales. InmodernChina,housewivesarenolongerascommon,especiallyinthelargestcitiesandotherurbanareas.Manymodernwomenworksimplybecauseoneperson'sincomeisinsufficienttosupportthefamily,adecisionmadeeasierbythefactthatitiscommonforChinesegrandparentstowatchaftertheirgrandchildrenuntiltheyareoldenoughtogotoschool.Nonetheless,thenumberofChinesehousewiveshasbeensteadilyrisinginrecentyearsasChina'seconomyexpands.[dubious–discuss] InIndia[edit] InatraditionalHindufamily,theheadofthefamilyistheGrihaSwami(LordoftheHouse)andhiswifeistheGrihaSwamini(LadyoftheHouse).TheSanskritwordsGrihastandGrihastaperhapscomeclosesttodescribingtheentiregamutofactivitiesandrolesundertakenbythehomemaker.GrihistheSanskritrootforhouseorhome;GrihastaandGrihastarederivativesofthisroot,asisGrihastya.ThecouplelivesinthestatecalledGrihastashramorfamilysystemandtogethertheynurturethefamilyandhelpitsmembers(bothyoungandold)throughthetravailsoflife.Thewomanwhoincrementsthefamilytree(bearschildren)andprotectsthosechildrenisdescribedastheGrihalakshmi(thewealthofthehouse)andGrihashoba(thegloryofthehouse).TheeldersofthefamilyareknownasGrihshreshta.Thehusbandorwifemayengageincountlessotheractivitieswhichmaybesocial,religious,politicaloreconomicinnaturefortheultimatewelfareofthefamilyandsociety.However,theirunifiedstatusasjointhouseholdersisthenucleusfromwithinwhichtheyoperateinsociety.Thetraditionalstatusofawomanasahomemakeranchorstheminsocietyandprovidesmeaningtotheiractivitieswithinthesocial,religious,politicalandeconomicframeworkoftheirworld.However,asIndiaundergoesmodernisation,manywomenareinemployment,particularlyinthelargercitiessuchasMumbai,Delhi,Kolkata,Chennai,HyderabadandBangalore,wheremostwomenwillwork.TheroleofthemalehomemakerisnottraditionalinIndia,butitissociallyacceptedinurbanareas.Accordingtoonesociologist'sstudyin2006,twelvepercentofunmarriedIndianmenwouldconsiderbeingahomemakeraccordingtoasurveyconductedbyBusinessToday.[15]Onesociologist,SushmaTulzhapurkar,calledthisashiftinIndiansociety,sayingthatadecadeago,"itwasanunheardconceptandnottomentionsociallyunacceptableformentogiveuptheirjobsandremainathome."[16]However,only22.7percentofIndianwomenarepartofthelaborforce,comparedto51.6percentofmen;thus,womenaremorelikelytobecaregiversbecausemostdonotworkoutsidethehome.[17] MahilaShaktiSamajikSamitiisawomen'ssocietycomposedmainlyofhousewives.[18] SadhnaSinhaiscurrentpresidentofthesamiti.[19] InNorthKorea[edit] Untilaround1990,theNorthKoreangovernmentrequiredeveryable-bodiedmaletobeemployedbysomestateenterprise.However,some30%ofmarriedwomenofworkingagewereallowedtostayathomeasfull-timehousewives(fewerthaninsomecountriesinthesameregionlikeSouthKorea,JapanandTaiwan;morethanintheformerSovietUnion,MainlandChinaandNordiccountrieslikeSweden,andaboutthesameasintheUnitedStates[20]).Intheearly1990s,afteranestimated900,000-3,500,000peopleperishedintheNorthKoreanfamine,theoldsystembegantofallapart.Insomecaseswomenbeganbysellinghomemadefoodorhouseholditemstheycoulddowithout.Todayatleastthree-quartersofNorthKoreanmarketvendorsarewomen.AjokemakingtheroundsinPyongyanggoes:'Whatdoahusbandandapetdoghaveincommon?'Answer:'Neitherworksnorearnsmoney,butbotharecute,stayathomeandcanscareawayburglars.'[21] InSweden[edit] Thetermhemmafru('housewife')emergedinthe1920s,whenitwasusedincontrasttoyrkeskvinna,'professionalwoman'.[22]Between1930and1960,thenumberofhousewivesinSwedenincreasedfrom930,000to1,148,000.[23]Thisdevelopmentwaslinkedtothetransitionfromanagrariantoanindustrialsociety.Fromthe1930sonwards,thenumberofpeopleemployedinagriculturedeclined,andmoreandmorepeoplemovedfromruralareastothecities.Atthesametime,thenumberofmarriedcouplesincreased.[24]Moreandmorepeople,mainlymen,wereearningalivingoutsidethehousehold,primarilythroughwageemploymentinindustry.Womenbecamehousewives,withspecialresponsibilityforchildren. AhousewifebyaWascatorlaundrymachine Acommonattitudewastoacceptthegenderrolesofthetimeasself-evident,buttoadvocatedifferentkindsofimprovementsforwomenworkingathome.Moreradicalpeoplearguedthatthehousewifewastrappedinhereconomicdependenceonherhusband,thatitwasunfairthatshewasnotpaidforherworkandthatshewasdeprivedofopportunitiestostimulateanddevelopherabilities.Theyarguedthatthehousewife,thewoman,wasseenasapersonwithoutherownunderstandingandcapacityandwaspreventedfromparticipatinginsocietyatlarge. Intheearly1960s,therewerelivelydiscussionsabouttheroleofwomeninsociety,theirrighttoeducationandwork,andtheirimportanceinraisingchildrenandthefamily.Inaninfluential1961articleentitledKvinnansvillkorligafrigivning('TheProbationofWomen'),EvaMoberg,oneofthemostinfluentialcommentators,describedtheideaofthestay-at-homewifeasanoutmodedremnantofpeasantsociety.[25] Mobergpushedforpoliticalreformstoimprovewomen'sconditionsinordertoliberatewomen.Byworkingprofessionally,women'sidentitywouldchange.Shewouldbecomeeconomicallyindependent,whichwouldalsoliberatemenfromthetraditionalmalerole.[24] Anotherdebater,MonicaBoëthius [sv],describedthefactthatmanywomendidnotworkaseconomicallyindefensible.Inabookofdebates,Boëthiusposedthequestion"Canweaffordwives?"[26]Women,Boëthiusargued,representedanunderutilizedreserveoflaborthat,iftapped,couldsignificantlyincreasethepurchasingpowerandstandardoflivingofhouseholds.[24]BoëthiusbuiltontheideasoftheeconomistPerHolmberg,[27]asexpressedinthebookKynneellerkön?in1966.[28] Fromthelate1960sonwards,thenumberofhousewivessteadilydeclined.Manytookpaidworkinschools,health,andsocialcareasthepublicsectorexpanded.Morethan500,000housewivesenteredtheworkforcebetweenthelate1960sandearly1980s.Between1968and1970alone,thenumberofnewlyemployedwomeninSwedenincreasedby100,000eachyear.[24] Acombinationoflabourdemandandgenderequalityconcernsledtoseveralpolicyreformsthatmadeiteasierforwomentoworkandforfamiliestocarefortheirchildrentogether.[29]Inthe1930sand1940s,nineoutoftenSwedishchildrenhadamotherwhoworkedathomewhiletheyweregrowingup;bythe1980s,fewerthanoneintenchildrenhadamotherwhowasahousewifeuntiltheyturned16.[22]However,womenwithchildrenuptopre-schoolagegenerallycontinuedtoworkathomeuntilsubsidizeddaycarewasintroducedonalargerscalefromaroundthemid-1970s. Developmentsfrom1960onwardswereverymucharesultofgovernmentaction.Women'sentryintothelabourmarketwasencouragedbytheabolitionofjointtaxationandtheexpansionofchildcarefacilities.Jointtaxationofspouseswasabolishedin1971.Thereportoftheso-called"childcareinquiry"(barnstugeutredningen [sv])onpre-schooleducationin1972wasthestartingpointfortheexpansionofpublicchildcareintheearlyyears.Bytheendofthe1970s,350,000childrenhadbeenenrolledindaycarecenters.Thefactthatwomenweregainfullyemployedwasdescribedbyleadingcommentatorsasawin-winsituationforchildrentoo.Theideawasthatchildrenhadmoredifficultydevelopingindependenceiftheyspenttheirdaysinanoverprotectedhomeenvironmentthaniftheywereinadaycarecenterwithqualifiedstaff.[24] Thereformerswereopposedbymoreconservativegroups,whobelievedthatwomen'srolewastolookafterthehome,bringupchildrenandsupporttheworkingman.OneorganizationthatsoughttoraisepublicopinionagainstthereformswasRäddafamiljen,'SavetheFamily'.ItbeganitsworkinJanuary1970,protestingwhatitsawasanattempttodismantlethestructureofthefamilythroughMarxistreforms.[27]Inthe1970petitioncampaign,Räddafamiljencollected63,000signaturestowhichitattacheditsletterofprotestagainstthefamilypolicyreformproposals.Theorganizationpublishedbooksofdebateinpolemicswithreformadvocatesduringtheearly1970s.[30][31][32] Oneofthegroup'sleadingfigureswasBritaNordström.Nordströmrejectedtheideathatgenderrolesarelearnedbehavioursandarguedthatwomen'sroleashousewiveswasnatural.Whilethewomanwastheemotionalleaderofthefamily,theonewhoinstilledharmonyandstability,theman'sjobwastoprovideanddefendandtoestablishthefamily'spositioninsociety.PsychologistKristinaHumblewasanotherleadingfigureinthemovement.InachapterofthedebatebookRätttillfamiljeliv'TheRighttoFamilyLife',[32]Humblearguedthatthehousewife'sdesireforpaidemploymentwasbasedonnaivedemandsforthesatisfactionofdesire.Shearguedthatdifferencesingenderroleswerecausedbygeneticdifferences,throughwhichmenweremorepredisposedtostruggleandself-assertion.Humblepaidparticularattentiontotheplightofchildrenasmorewomenenteredtheworkforce,andarguedagainsttheexpansionofpublicchildcare,believingthatstayingindaycarewouldcauseanincreaseinjuveniledelinquencyandmentalillnessamongchildren.[27] Intoday'sSweden,wheremostwomenareeducatedandgainfullyemployed,thereisseldomtalkaboutbeingahousewifewithoutbeingonparentalleave(ormaternityleave,andformen,paternityleave).Duringthisperiod,parentsreceivefinancialcompensationthroughtheparentalinsuranceprogram [sv].TraditionalhousewivesarenowquiterareinSweden. IntheUnitedKingdom[edit] 15th-17thcenturies[edit] InGreatBritain,thelivesofhousewivesofthe17thcenturyconsistedofseparate,distinctrolesformalesandfemaleswithinthehome.Typically,men'sworkconsistedofonespecifictask,suchasploughing.Whilemenhadasoleduty,womenwereresponsibleforvarious,timelytasks,suchasmilkingcows,clothingproduction,cooking,baking,housekeeping,childcare,andsoon.Womenfacedtheresponsibilitynotonlyofdomesticdutiesandchildcare,butagriculturalproduction.Duetotheirlonglistofresponsibilities,femalesfacedlongworkdayswithlittletonosleepatbusytimesofyear.Theirworkisdescribedas,"thehousewife'stasks'haveneveranend',combiningadailycyclewithseasonalwork".[33] 19th-20thcenturies[edit] Seealso:BritishHousewives'League In1911,90%ofwiveswerenotemployedintheworkforce.AnnOakley,authorofWoman'sWork:TheHousewife,Past,andPresent,describestheroleofa19th-centuryhousewifeas"ademeaningone,consistingofmonotonous,fragmentedworkwhichbroughtnofinancialremuneration,letaloneanyrecognition."[34]Asamiddleclasshousewife,typicaldutiesconsistedoforganizingandmaintainingahomethatemphasizedthemalebreadwinner'sfinancialsuccess.Throughoutthistimeperiod,theroleofthehousewifewasnotonlyacceptedinsociety,butasought-afterdesire.[34]Eventually,women,duetothedifficultyandconsumingnatureofthesetasks,begantofocussolelyononeprofession.Byfocusingonaparticularniche,womenspentmoretimeoutsideofthehome,wheretheycouldflourishindependently. AsahousewifeintheUnitedKingdom,femaleswereencouragedtobepreciseandsystematicwhenfollowingduties.In1869,R.K.Phillippublishedahouseholdmanual,titled,TheReasonWhy:TheDomesticScience.Themanualtaughtwomenhowtoperformcertainduties,aswellasthenecessitybehindtheirhouseholdchores.[35]Cookbooksandmanualsprovidedexactmeasurementsandinstructionsforbakingandcooking,writteninaneloquentmanner.Complicatedrecipesrequiredaknowledgeofmath–arithmetic,fractions,andratios.Cookbooksandhouseholdmanualswerewrittenforwomen,therefore,eliminatingtheideaofmenparticipatingindomesticduties.[35] Inmostcases,womenchoosetoworkinthehome.Workoutsideofthehomewasdeemedunattractive,difficult,anddaunting.Sincethefemaleisheavilyinvolvedwithherchildrenanddomesticduties,certainriskswereassociatedwithawoman'sabsence.Forexample,alifeinthelaborforcedoubledawomen'saverageworkload.Notonlywassheexpectedtofinanciallyprovide,butshewasfullyresponsibleforcaringandraisingherchildren.Ifthemotherchosetowork,childcarecostsbegantoaddup,therefore,decreasingtheincentivesforthewomantoholdademandingjob.Ifaworkingmothercouldnotaffordtopayforchildcare,thisoftenresultedinherappointingherolderchildrentoactastheyoungerchildren'scaretakers.Whilethiswasfinanciallyefficient,itwaslookeddownuponbysocietyandotherhousewives.Inthistimeperiod,manybelievedthatyoungerchildrenwereatriskforinjuriesorotherphysicalharmifcaredforbyoldersiblings.[36] Withinthistimeperiod,womenbecameinvolvedwithconsumerpolitics,throughorganizationssuchastheCo-operativeUnion.Organizationsallowedwomentogetinvolved,aswellasdevelopanunderstandingoffeminism.In1833,theWomen'sCo-operativeUnionwasestablished.MargaretLlewelynDavies,oneoftheorganization'skeyfemaleleaders,spokeoutontopicsregardingdivorce,maternitybenefits,andbirthcontrol.Similarly,ClementinaBlackhelpedestablishaconsumer'sleague,whichattemptedtoboycottorganizationsthatdidnotpaywomenfairwages.[37]Comparedtoearliercenturies,womenfoundavoiceinpoliticsandbeganunderstandingtheconceptoffeminism.Insteadoffocusingpurelyonhouseholdandchildcareduties,womenslowlymergedintothepublicsectorofsociety. PartofthehouseworkofaLondonhousewife,1941 Inrecentyears,accompaniedbytherespectofhousewives,theUKispayingmoreattentiontothevaluecreatedbyhousewife.AccordingtotheOfficeforNationalStatistics(ONS),childcareaccountsfor61.5%ofunpaidwork'svalueathome,therestincludes16.1%intransport,9,7%inprovidingandmaintainingahome,othersingivingcaretoadults,thepreparationofmealsaswellasclothingandlaundry.Thetotalunpaidworkathomewasvaluedat£38,162perUKhouseholdin2014,accordingtoONS.[38] TwoBritishmagazinesforhousewiveshavebeenpublished:TheHousewife(London:Officesof"TheMillion",1886[1900])andHousewife(London:Hultons,1939–68).[39]"OnaTiredHousewife"isananonymouspoemaboutthehousewife'slot: Hereliesapoorwomanwhowasalwaystired, Shelivedinahousewherehelpwasn'thired: Herlastwordsonearthwere:"Dearfriends,Iamgoing Towherethere'snocooking,orwashing,orsewing, Foreverythingthereisexacttomywishes, Forwheretheydon'teatthere'snowashingofdishes. I'llbewhereloudanthemswillalwaysberinging, ButhavingnovoiceI'llbequitofthesinging. Don'tmournformenow,don'tmournformenever, Iamgoingtodonothingforeverandever."[40] IntheUnitedStates[edit] GoodHousekeeping(Americanmagazine),1908 Tetrapakadvertisementdepictingahousewifeasaselectorandconsumerofproducts,circa1950 About50%ofmarriedU.S.womenin1978continuedworkingaftergivingbirth;in1997,thenumbergrewto61%.Thenumberofhousewivesincreasedinthe2000s.DuringtheGreatRecession,adecreaseinaverageincomemadetwoincomesmorenecessary,andthepercentageofmarriedU.S.womenwhokeptworkingaftergivingbirthincreasedto69%by2009.[41][42]Asof2014,accordingtothePewResearchCenter,morethanoneinfourmothersarestay-at-homeintheU.S. HousewivesinAmericaweretypicalinthemiddleofthe20thcenturyamongmiddle-classandupper-classwhitefamilies.[43]Blackfamilies,recentimmigrants,andotherminoritygroupstendednottobenefitfromtheunionwages,governmentpolicies,andotherfactorsthatledtowhitewivesbeingabletostayathomeduringthesedecades.[43] AMinnesotanhousewifeinthekitchenofhermobilehome,1974 A2005studyestimatedthat31%ofworkingmothersleavetheworkplaceforanaverageof2.2years,mostoftenprecipitatedbythebirthofthesecondchild.[44]Thisgiveshertimetoconcentratefull-timeonchild-rearingandtoavoidthehighcostofchildcare,particularlythroughtheearlyyears(beforeschoolbeginsatagefive).Thereisconsiderablevariabilitywithinthestay-at-homemotherpopulationwithregardtotheirintenttoreturntothepaidworkforce.Someplantoworkfromtheirhomes,somewilldopart-timework,someintendtoreturntopart-orfull-timeworkwhentheirchildrenhavereachedschoolage,somemayincreasetheirskillsetsbyreturningtohighereducation,andothersmayfinditfinanciallyfeasibletorefrainfromentering(orre-entering)thepaidworkforce.Researchhaslinkedfeelingsof"maternalguiltandseparationanxiety"toreturningtotheworkforce.[45] Similarly,thereisconsiderablevariationinthestay-at-homemother'sattitudetowardsdomesticworknotrelatedtocaringforchildren.Somemayembraceatraditionalroleofhousewifebycookingandcleaninginadditiontocaringforchildren.Othersseetheirprimaryroleasthatofchildcareproviders,supportingtheirchildren'sphysical,intellectual,emotional,andspiritualdevelopmentwhilesharingoroutsourcingotheraspectsofcaringforthehome. History[edit] Althoughmenhavegenerallybeenthoughtofastheprimaryorsolebreadwinnersforfamiliesinrecenthistory,thedivisionoflaborbetweenmenandwomenintraditionalsocietiesrequiredbothgenderstotakeanactiveroleinobtainingresourcesoutsidethedomesticsphere.Priortoagricultureandanimalhusbandry,reliablefoodsourceswereascarcecommodity.Toachieveoptimalnutritionduringthistime,itwasimperativethatbothmenandwomenfocustheirenergiesonhuntingandgatheringasmanydifferentediblefoodsaspossibletosustainthemselvesonadailybasis.Lackingthetechnologiesnecessarytostoreandpreservefood,itwascriticalformenandwomentoseekoutandobtainfreshfoodsourcesalmostcontinuously.Thesenomadictribesusedgenderdifferencestotheiradvantage,allowingmenandwomentousetheircomplementaryadaptationsandsurvivalstrategiestofindthemostdiverseandnutritionallycompletefoodsavailable.Forexample,inthecontextofdailyforaging,childcareitselfwasnotahindrancetowomen'sproductivity;rather,performingthistaskwithherchildrenbothincreasedtheoverallefficiencyoftheactivity(morepeopleparticipatingequalsagreateryieldofedibleroots,berries,nuts,andplants),andfunctionedasanimportanthands-onlessoninsurvivalskillsforeachchild.Bysharingtheburdenofdailysustenance–anddevelopingspecializedgenderniches–humansnotonlyensuredtheircontinuedsurvival,butalsopavedthewayforlatertechnologiestoevolveandgrowthroughexperience. ChildPrayingatMother'sKnee,adrawingbyPierre-ÉdouardFrère,1864Inthe19thcentury,moreandmorewomeninindustrialisingcountriesstoppedbeinghomemakersandfarmwivesandbegantoundertakepaidworkinvariousindustriesoutsidethehomeandawayfromthefamilyfarm,inadditiontotheworktheydidathome.Atthistimemanybigfactoriesweresetup,firstinEngland,theninotherEuropeancountriesandtheUnitedStates.Manythousandsofyoungwomenwenttoworkinfactories;mostfactoriesemployedwomeninrolesdifferentfromthoseoccupiedbymen.Therewerealsowomenwhoworkedathomeforlowwageswhilecaringfortheirchildrenatthesametime. Beingahousewifewasonlyrealisticamongmiddle-classandupper-classfamilies.Inworking-classfamilies,itwastypicalforwomentowork.Inthe19thcentury,athirdtohalfofmarriedwomeninEnglandwererecordedinthecensusasworkingforoutsidepay,andsomehistoriansbelievethistobeanundercount.[46]Amongmarriedcouplesthatcouldaffordit,thewifeoftenmanagedthehousework,gardening,cooking,andchildrenwithoutworkingoutsidethehome.Womenwereoftenveryproudtobeagoodhomemakerandhavetheirhouseandchildrenrespectablytakencareof.Otherwomen,likeFlorenceNightingale,pursuednon-factoryprofessionseventhoughtheywerewealthyenoughthattheydidnotneedtheincome.Someprofessionsopentowomenwerealsorestrictedtounmarriedwomen(e.g.,teaching). Intheearly20thcentury,bothworldwars(WorldWarI,1914–18;andWorldWarII,1939-45)werefoughtbythemenofmanydifferentcountries.(Therewerealsospecialrolesinthearmedforcescarriedoutbywomen,e.g.nursing,transport,etc.andinsomecountrieswomensoldiersalso.)Whilethemenwereatwar,manyoftheirwomenfolkwenttoworkoutsidethehometokeepthecountriesrunning.Women,whowerealsohomemakers,workedinfactories,businessesandfarms.Attheendofbothwars,manymenhaddied,andothersreturnedinjured.Somemenwereabletoreturntotheirpreviouspositions,butsomewomenstayedintheworkforceaswell.Inadditiontothissurgeinwomenenteringtheworkforce,conveniencefoodanddomestictechnologywerealsorisinginpopularity,bothofwhichsavedwomentimethattheymayhavespentperformingdomestictasks,andenabledthemtoinsteadpursueotherinterests.[47] Awomancooks,supervisedbyateacher,inadomesticeconomyinstituteinStockholm,Sweden.(1950) Thegovernmentsofcommunistcountriesintheearlyandmiddle20thcentury,suchastheSovietUnionandChina,encouragedmarriedwomentokeepworkingaftergivingbirth.Therewereveryfewhousewivesincommunistcountriesuntilfreemarketeconomicreforminthe1990s,whichledtoaresurgenceinthenumberofhousewives.Conversely,intheWesternWorldofthe1950s,manywomenquittheirjobstobehousewivesaftergivingbirth.Only11%ofmarriedwomenintheUSkeptworkingaftergivingbirth.[48] Inthe1960sinwesterncountries,itwasbecomingmoreacceptedforawomantoworkuntilshegotmarried,whenitwasawidelyheldbeliefthatsheshouldstopworkandbecomeahousewife.Manywomenbelievedthatthiswasnottreatingmenandwomenequallyandthatwomenshoulddowhateverjobstheywereabletodo,whethertheyweremarriedornot.TheFeminineMystique,a1963bookbyBettyFriedanwhichiswidelycreditedwithsparkingthebeginningofsecond-wavefeminismintheUS,discussed,amongotherthings,thelivesofhousewivesfromaroundtheUSwhowereunhappydespitelivinginmaterialcomfortandbeingmarriedwithchildren.[49][50]Atthistime,manywomenwerebecomingmoreeducated.Asaresultofthisincreasededucation,somewomenwereabletoearnmorethantheirhusbands.Inveryrarecases,thehusbandwouldremainathometoraisetheiryoungchildrenwhilethewifeworked.In1964,aUSstampwasissuedhonoringhomemakersforthe50thanniversaryoftheSmith-LeverAct.[51][52] Inthelate20thcentury,inmanycountries,itbecameharderforafamilytoliveonasinglewage.Subsequently,manywomenwererequiredtoreturntoworkfollowingthebirthoftheirchildren.However,thenumberofmalehomemakersbegangraduallyincreasinginthelate20thcentury,especiallyindevelopedWesternnations.In2010,thenumberofmalehomemakersintheUShadreacheditshighestpoint:2.2 million.[53]Thoughthemaleroleissubjecttomanystereotypes,andmenmayhavedifficultiesaccessingparentingbenefits,communities,andservicestargetedatmothers,itbecamemoresociallyacceptablebythe2000s.[54]Themalehomemakerwasmoreregularlyportrayedinthemediabythe2000s,especiallyintheUS.However,insomeregionsoftheworld,themalehomemakerremainsaculturallyunacceptablerole. Selfemployed[edit] Thissectionneedsexpansion.Youcanhelpbyaddingtoit.(July2016) Examplesofnotablehousewivesinclude: England IreneLovelock(1896-1974),thefounderoftheBritishHousewives'League ElizabethRebeccaWard(1880-1978),wroteunderthepen-nameofFayInchfawn Germany JohanneWalhorn(1911-1995),alawyerwhore-establishedtheGermanHousewivesAssociation [de]inMünster India SudhaMurty(b.1950),engineeringteacher,writerandsocialworker TheNetherlands FannyBlankers-Koen(1918-2004),aDutchathleteknownas"TheFlyingHousewife" Norway AletteEngelhart(1896-1984),aNorwegianhousewives'leader UnitedStates MarthaB.Alexander(b.1939),aformerDemocraticmemberoftheNorthCarolinaGeneralAssembly MargaretDayton(b.1949),apoliticianfromUtah GeanieMorrison(b.1950),Americanpolitician[citationneeded] TerryRakolta(b.1944),Americanactivist AnnRomney(b.1949),Americanequestrian,author,andphilanthropist MargotSeitelman(1928–1989),thefirstexecutivedirectorofAmericanMensa BarbaraStafford(b.1953),Americanpolitician Songsaboutthehousewife'slot[edit] Thehousewife'sworkhasoftenbeenthesubjectoffolksongs.Examplesinclude:"TheHousewife'sLament"(fromthediaryofSarahPrice,Ottawa,Illinois,mid19thcentury);[55]"NineHoursaDay"(1871Englishsong,anonymous);"AWoman'sWorkisNeverDone",or"AWomanNeverKnowsWhenherDay'sWorkisDone";[56]"TheLabouringWoman";"HowFiveandTwentyShillingswereExpendedinaWeek"(Englishpopularsongs);and"AWoman'sWork"(LondonmusichallsongbySuePay,1934).[57]"TheHousewife'sAlphabet"byPeggySeegerwasissuedasaBlackthorneRecordssinglein1977with"MySon".[58] Seealso[edit] Feministeconomics Soccermom Stay-at-homedad(i.e.househusband) TheCompleatHousewifeorAccomplish'dGentlewoman'sCompanion,a1727Englishcookerybook,how-tomanual,andthefirstpublishedcookbookintheUS KitchenStories,a2003filminspiredbypost-WarScandinavianstudiesofthehousewifeinthekitchen TheTwo-IncomeTrap,2004book References[edit] ^"Housewife".MacmillanDictionary. ^Davidson,Thomas,ed.(1903).Chambers'sTwentiethCenturyDictionaryoftheEnglishLanguage.London:W.&R.Chambers.p. 443. ^Weissman,JudithReiter.(1994).Laborsoflove :America'stextilesandneedlework,1650-1930.Lavitt,Wendy.NewYork:WingsBooks.ISBN 0-517-10136-X.OCLC 29315818. ^"housewife".OxfordEnglishDictionary(Online ed.).OxfordUniversityPress. (Subscriptionorparticipatinginstitutionmembershiprequired.) ^Luxton,Meg;Rosenberg,Harriet(1986),ThroughtheKitchenWindow:ThePoliticsofHomeandFamily,GaramondPress,ISBN 978-0-920059-30-2 ^Luxton,Meg(1980),MoreThanaLabourofLove:ThreeGenerationsofWomen'sWorkintheHome,Women'sPress,ISBN 978-0-88961-062-0 ^Wilkerson,Jessica(14August2019)."ALifetimeOfLabor:MaybelleCarterAtWork".Unlessawomanearnedwagesonsomebodyelse'sfarmorinanotherwoman'shome,heremploymentwouldbelistedbythecensustakeras"none."Itdidn'tmatterhowmuchherlaborproppedupthefamilyfarmorthatitsustainedafamily.Womenwerelistedasdependentsofmen,andmenwereidentifiedbytheirtypeofemployment.{{citenews}}:CS1maint:url-status(link) ^Chant,Sylvia(1991).WomenandSurvivalinMexicanCities:perspectivesongender,labourmarkets,andlow-incomehouseholds.Manchester,UK;NewYork,NY,USA:ManchesterUniversityPressDistributedintheUSAandCanadabySt.Martin'sPress.ISBN 978-0-7190-3443-5.Page128 ^Treas,Judith;Tai,Tsuio(May2016)."GenderInequalityinHouseworkAcross20EuropeanNations:LessonsfromGenderStratificationTheories".SexRoles.74(11–12):495–511.doi:10.1007/s11199-015-0575-9.ISSN 0360-0025.S2CID 146253376. ^"What'saWifeWorth?".17March1988.Retrieved17Oct2015. ^Dement,AliceL.(1960)."HigherEducationoftheHousewife:WantedorWasted?".TheJournalofHigherEducation.OhioStateUniversityPress.31(1(January)):28–32.doi:10.2307/1977571.JSTOR 1977571. ^"Mummy,Iwanttobeahousewife".TimesHigherEducation.26April1996.Retrieved8May2016. ^"CraftinganEducatedHousewifeinIran"(PDF).{{citejournal}}:Citejournalrequires|journal=(help) ^"Highlyeducatedhousewives:whataneconomicwaste".TheTimes.25July2012.Retrieved8May2016. ^"Life&TimesofIndianMen".BusinessToday.July29,2009.Retrieved2009-07-30. ^Dias,Raul(June26,2006)."Nowpapasdowhatmamasdidbest!".TimesofIndia.Retrieved2009-07-30. ^"Asia'swomeninagriculture,environmentandruralproduction".Archivedfromtheoriginalon2014-06-30.Retrieved2009-07-30. ^OfficialWebsite ^"MAHILASHAKTISAMAJEEKSAMMITTEE(REGD)".Archivedfromtheoriginalon30October2014.Retrieved30October2014. ^aChinese-Englishtranslationweb(译言网）:WillChinesewomenruletheworld? ^AndreiLankov(aprofessorinSouthKoreaNationalUniversity)."Pyongyang'sWomenWearthePants".cuyoo.com(Chinese-EnglishTranslateWeb.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2014-04-23.Retrieved2014-05-30. ^abClayhills,Harriet(1991).Kvinnohistoriskuppslagsbok(inSwedish).Stockholm:Raben&Sjögren.p. 177.ISBN 91-29-61587-9.OCLC 28699935. ^"hemmafru-Uppslagsverk-NE.se".www.ne.se(inSwedish).Retrieved2022-01-28. ^abcdeQvarsebo,Jonas(2006)."Hemmafrunssistasuck".Popularhistoria(inSwedish).No. 3.pp. 34–39.ISSN 1102-0822. ^Eva,Moberg(2003)."Kvinnansvillkorligafrigivning".Primamateria:texteriurval(inSwedish).pp. 11–26. ^Boëthius,Monica(1967).Harvirådmedfruar?:enofullständighandbokimisshushållningensallagrenar(inSwedish).Propriusförlag.OCLC 478026871. ^abcQvarsebo,Jonas(2002)."Ennymänniskaförennyfamilj:med1970-taletsnyasynpåfamiljenblevhemmafrundensamlandesymbolenförenomodern,reaktionärochpatriarkaliskmänniskosyn".Tvärsnitt(inSwedish).24(3):26–41.ISSN 0348-7997. ^Kynneellerkön?Omkönsrollernaidetmodernasamhället.Endebattskriftundermedverkanavbl.a.PerHolmberg,etc(inSwedish).Stockholm:Rabén&Sjögren.1966.OCLC 561154242.{{citebook}}:CS1maint:dateandyear(link) ^Axelsson,Christina(1992).Hemmafrunsomförsvann:ÖvergångentilllönearbeteblandgiftakvinnoriSverige1968-1981(inSwedish).Stockholm:StockholmsUniversitet.ISBN 91-7604-047-X.OCLC 1132580597. ^Nordström,Brita(1973).Skallfamiljenkrossas?:vadblirföljdenomförslageniFamiljelagssakkunniga,FamiljepolitiskakommitténsochBarnstugeutredningensbetänkandeblirlag?(inSwedish).Uppsala:Proveritate.ISBN 99-1853280-7.OCLC 185785651. ^Wieselgren,JonPeter(1972).Räddafamiljen(inSwedish).Uppsala:ProVeritate.ISBN 99-1853280-7.OCLC 1153940242. ^abLindbom,Tage,ed.(1975).Rätttillfamiljeliv(inSwedish).Uppsala:ProVeritate.ISBN 99-1853280-7. ^Whittle,Jane(December2005)."HOUSEWIVESANDSERVANTSINRURALENGLAND,1440–1650:EVIDENCEOFWOMEN'sWORKFROMPROBATEDOCUMENTS".TransactionsoftheRoyalHistoricalSociety.15:51–74.doi:10.1017/S0080440105000332.hdl:10871/8424.ISSN 0080-4401.S2CID 155056103. ^abBourke,Joanna(1994)."HousewiferyinWorking-ClassEngland1860-1914".Past&Present.143(143):167–197.doi:10.1093/past/143.1.167.ISSN 0031-2746.JSTOR 651165. ^abLieffers,C.(2012-06-01).""ThePresentTimeisEminentlyScientific":TheScienceofCookeryinNineteenth-CenturyBritain".JournalofSocialHistory.45(4):936–959.doi:10.1093/jsh/shr106.ISSN 0022-4529.S2CID 145735940. ^Bourke,Joanna(1994)."HousewiferyinWorking-ClassEngland1860–1914".PastandPresent.143(1):167–197.doi:10.1093/past/143.1.167.ISSN 0031-2746. ^Hilton,Matthew(March2002)."TheFemaleConsumerandthePoliticsofConsumptioninTwentieth-CenturyBritain".TheHistoricalJournal.45(1):103–128.doi:10.1017/S0018246X01002266.ISSN 1469-5103.S2CID 154379558. ^Peachey,Kevin(2016-04-07)."Thevalueofunpaidchoresathome".Retrieved2019-03-05. ^HeldbyvariouslibrariesintheUK;Copac ^ThePenguinBookofComicandCuriousVerse,ed.J.M.Cohen.Harmondsworth:Penguin,1952;p.31 ^"EmploymentCharacteristicsofFamiliesSummary".U.S.DepartmentofLabor. ^aChinese-Englishtranslationweb(译言网:WillChinesewomenruletheworld? ^abGershon,Livia(2018-03-21)."SeekingaRoadmapfortheNewAmericanMiddleClass".Longreads.Retrieved2018-04-25. ^Hewlett,S.A.,Luce,C.B.,Shiller,P.&Southwell,S.(2005,March).Thehiddenbraindrain:Off-rampsandon-rampsinwomen’scareers.CenterforWorkLife.Policy/HarvardBusinessReviewResearch.Report,Productno.9491.Cambridge,MA:HarvardBusinessSchoolPublishingCorporation. ^Rubin,StaceyE.,andH.RayWooten."Highlyeducatedstay-at-homemothers:Astudyofcommitmentandconflict."TheFamilyJournal15.4(2007):336-345. ^Wilkinson,Amanda(13April2014)."Sowivesdidn'tworkinthe'goodolddays'?Wrong".TheGuardian.Retrieved2018-04-23. ^Maurer,Elizabeth(2017),HowHighlyProcessedFoodsLiberated1950sHousewives,NationalWomen'sHistoryMuseum ^Inthekitchendebatein1959:NixonsaidAmericanhousewivesarehappierthantheSovietUnionworkingwomen ^"TheFeminineMystiqueSummary".Enotes.com.Retrieved2011-02-18. ^BettyFriedan,WhoIgnitedCausein'FeminineMystique,'Diesat85-TheNewYorkTimes,February5,2006. ^"LeavingTheirStamponHistory".Archivedfromtheoriginalon2015-09-06. ^"Arago:HomemakersIssue". ^Livingston,Gretchen(5June2014)."GrowingNumberofDadsHomewiththeKids".PewResearchCenter’sSocial&DemographicTrendsProject.Retrieved2016-03-22. ^AndreaDoucet,2006.DoMenMother?Toronto,ON:UniversityofTorontoPress. ^Recordedon:TheFemaleFrolic,ArgoZDA82&Seeger,P.Penelopeisn'tWaitinganyMoreBlackthorneBR1050 ^RecordedonStavertonBridgeSADISCSDL266 ^KathyHendersonetal.,comp.(1979)MySongisMyOwn:100women'ssongs.London:Pluto;pp.126-28,142-43 ^NewCitySongster;vol.13,Oct.1977 General Allen,Robert,consult.ed.(2003).ThePenguinEnglishDictionary.London,England:PenguinBooks.p. 1642.ISBN 978-0-14-051533-6.{{citebook}}:|first=hasgenericname(help) Furtherreading[edit] Swain,Sally(1988)GreatHousewivesofArt.London:Grafton(reissuedbyHarperCollins,London,1995)(pastichesoffamousartistsshowinghousewives'tasks,e.g.MrsKandinskyPutsAwaytheKids'Toys) UnitedStates Campbell,D'Ann(1984).WomenatWarwithAmerica:PrivateLivesinaPatrioticEra,onWorldWarII Ogden,AnnegretS.(1987)TheGreatAmericanHousewife:FromHelpmatetoWageEarner,1776-1986 Palmer,Phyllis(1990).HousewivesandDomesticServantsintheUnitedStates,1920-1945. Ramey,ValerieA.(2009),“TimeSpentinHomeProductionintheTwentieth-CenturyUnitedStates:NewEstimatesfromOldData,”JournalofEconomicHistory,69(March2009),1–47. Tillotson,Kristin(2004)RetroHousewife:asalutetotheurbansuperwoman.Portland,Ore.:CollectorsPressISBN 1-888054-92-1 Ulrich,LaurelThatcher(1982).GoodWives:ImageandRealityintheLivesofWomeninNorthernNewEngland,1650-1750 Europe Draznin,YaffaClaire(2001).VictorianLondon'sMiddle-ClassHousewife:WhatSheDidAllDay227pp Hardy,Sheila(2012)A1950sHousewife:MarriageandHomemakinginthe1950s.Stroud:theHistoryPressISBN 978-0-7524-69-89-8 McCarthy,Helen.(2020)"TheRiseoftheWorkingWife."HistoryToday(May2020)70#5pp18–20,covers1950to1960;online McMillan,JamesF.(1981)HousewifeorHarlot:ThePlaceofWomeninFrenchSociety,1870-1940229pp Myrdal,Alva&Klein,Viola(1956)Women’sTwoRoles:HomeandWork.London:RoutledgeandKeganPaul Robertson,UnaA.(1997)IllustratedHistoryoftheHousewife,1650-1950218pp(onBritain) Sim,Alison(1996).TudorHousewife,(on1480to1609inEngland) Externallinks[edit] LookupHousewifeinWiktionary,thefreedictionary. WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoHousewives. ThedictionarydefinitionofhomemakeratWiktionary HomeEconomicsArchive:Tradition,Research,History(HEARTH);Ane-bookcollectionofover1,000classicbooksonhomeeconomicsspanning1850to1950,createdbyCornellUniversity'sMannLibrary. NorthernIllinoisUniversity:Roles:TheChangingRolesofFarmWomenbyJaneAdamsforHistoricalResearchandNarrativeatIllinoisPeriodicalsOnline;Informationandeducationalmaterialsabout19thcenturyfarmwives Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Housewife&oldid=1098877965" Categories:HomeeconomicsHousewivesTermsforwomenHiddencategories:CS1maint:url-statusCS1errors:missingperiodicalCS1Swedish-languagesources(sv)CS1maint:dateandyearArticleswithshortdescriptionShortdescriptionisdifferentfromWikidataWikipediaarticleslackingfocusfromApril2019AllWikipediaarticleslackingfocusArticlestobesplitfromApril2019AllarticlestobesplitArticlesneedingtranslationfromSwedishWikipediaArticleswithmultiplemaintenanceissuesAllarticleswithunsourcedstatementsArticleswithunsourcedstatementsfromJuly2021ArticleswithunsourcedstatementsfromJanuary2012AllaccuracydisputesArticleswithdisputedstatementsfromFebruary2017ArticlescontainingSwedish-languagetextArticlestobeexpandedfromJuly2016AllarticlestobeexpandedArticlesusingsmallmessageboxesArticleswithunsourcedstatementsfromAugust2020CS1errors:genericnameCommonscategorylinkisonWikidataACwith0elements Navigationmenu Personaltools NotloggedinTalkContributionsCreateaccountLogin Namespaces ArticleTalk English Views ReadEditViewhistory More Search Navigation MainpageContentsCurrenteventsRandomarticleAboutWikipediaContactusDonate Contribute HelpLearntoeditCommunityportalRecentchangesUploadfile Tools WhatlinkshereRelatedchangesUploadfileSpecialpagesPermanentlinkPageinformationCitethispageWikidataitem Print/export DownloadasPDFPrintableversion Inotherprojects WikimediaCommons Languages العربيةBân-lâm-gúCatalàDeutschEspañolEuskaraفارسیFrançaisFryskGalegoItalianoNederlands日本語PortuguêsРусскийSlovenčinaСрпски/srpskiSvenskaTürkçeУкраїнськаTiếngViệt粵語中文 Editlinks