What's Wrong with Moral Foundations Theory, and How to get ...

Best known among these accounts is Jonathan Haidt's Moral Foundations Theory (MFT). ... These foundations include: Care, Fairness, Loyalty, ... Oncetheexclusivepreserveofphilosophyand theology,thestudyofmoralityhasnowbecomeathrivinginterdisciplinaryendeavor, encompassingresearchinevolutionarytheory,genetics,biology,animal behavior,psychology,andanthropology.Theemergingconsensusisthatthereis nothingmysteriousaboutmorality;itismerelyacollectionofbiologicaland culturaltraitsthatpromotecooperation. BestknownamongtheseaccountsisJonathanHaidt’sMoralFoundationsTheory(MFT).AccordingtoMFT:“Moralsystemsareinterlockingsetsofvalues,virtues,norms,practices,identities,institutions,technologies,andevolvedpsychologicalmechanismsthatworktogethertosuppressorregulateselfishnessandmakecooperativesociallifepossible.”AndMFTproceedstoarguethat,becausehumansfacemultiplesocialproblems,theyhavemultiplemoralvalues—theyrelyonmultiple“foundations”whenmakingmoraldecisions.Thesefoundationsinclude:Care,Fairness,Loyalty,Authority,andPurity. Care:“Thesufferingofothers,includingvirtuesofcaring andcompassion.”Fairness:“Unfairtreatment,cheating,andmoreabstract notionsofjusticeandrights.”Loyalty:The“obligationsofgroupmembership”including “self-sacrifice,andvigilanceagainstbetrayal.”Authority:“Socialorderandtheobligationsofhierarchical relationships,suchasobedience,respect,andthefulfillmentofrole-based duties.”Purity:“Physical andspiritualcontagion,includingvirtuesofchastity,wholesomeness,and controlofdesires.” Thesemoralfoundationshavebeenoperationalized,andmeasured,bytheMoralFoundationsQuestionnaire(MFQ;youcancompleteithere). MFTandthequestionnairehavehadanenormousimpactonmoralpsychology.Thecentralpapershavebeencitedhundredsoftimes.AndthereisnowahugeliteratureapplyingMFTtobioethics,charity,environmentalism,psychopathy,religion,andespeciallypolitics.However,MFThassomeseriousproblems,boththeoreticalandempirical. MoralFoundationsTheoryhashadanenormousimpactonmoralpsychology.However,thetheoryhassomeseriousproblems,boththeoreticalandempirical. ThemaintheoreticalproblemisthatMFT’slistoffoundationsisnotbasedonanyparticulartheoryofcooperation,oronanyexplicittheoryatall.Indeed,Haidt,hasexplicitlyarguedagainsttakingwhathecallsan“aprioriorprincipled”approachtomoralpsychology,andinsteadhasadvocatedtakingan“adhoc”approach.Theshortcomingsofthisadhocapproach,however,arealltooplaintosee. First,MFT’slistoffoundationshas criticalomissions.Despiteclaimingtobeanevolutionary-cooperativeaccount ofmorality,MFTfailstoincludethefourmostwell-establishedtypesof evolvedcooperation: kinaltruism,reciprocalaltruism,competitive altruism,andrespectforpriorpossession. KinaltruismhasnodedicatedfoundationinMFT.AlthoughMFT arguesthatCareoriginallymotivatedinvestmentinoffspring,itisnow appliedtononkin;andMFTtreats“family”asjustanothertypeof“group.”The questionnaire(MFQ)doeshavetwoitemspertainingtofamily,buttheyappear underFairnessandLoyalty,notCare.ReciprocalaltruismhasnodedicatedfoundationinMFT. Instead,MFTconflatesreciprocity—asolutiontoiteratedprisoners’ dilemmas—withfairness—asolutiontobargainingproblems.AndtheMFQhasno itemspertainingtoreciprocity.Competitivealtruism—thatis,costlysignalsofstatus,such asbraveryorgenerosity—hasnodedicatedfoundationinMFT,andnoitemsin theMFQ.Respectforprior possession—thatis,propertyrightsandtheprohibitionoftheft—hasno dedicatedfoundationinMFT.TheMFQ’sonlymentionofpropertyoccursinan itemaboutinheritance,underFairness. Second,inadditiontothese omissions,MFTincludestwofoundationsthatarenotdistincttypesofevolved cooperation:CareandPurity. Care—like“altruism”or“benevolence”—isagenericcategory,notaspecifictypeofcooperation.Itdoesn’tdistinguishbetweenthevariousdistincttypesofcooperation—kinaltruism,mutualism,reciprocalaltruism,competitivealtruismandtheircorrespondingpsychologicalmechanisms—allofwhichinvolvecaringfordifferentpeople(includingfamily,friends,strangers)fordifferentreasons.Purityissupposedtostemfromtheneedtoavoid“peoplew/diseases,parasites[&]wasteproducts.”But“avoidingpathogens”isnotitselfacooperativeproblem,anymorethan,say,“avoidingpredators.”And,indeed,MFToffersnoconnectionbetweenpurityandcooperation.Onthecontrary,Purityisdescribedasan“oddcorner”ofmoralitybecauseitisnot“concernedwithhowwetreatotherpeople.”Hence,categorizingPurityasamoralfoundationisanomalous. Thus,MFT’stheory-freeapproach resultsinegregiouserrorsofomission,conflation,andcommission.Itmisses somecandidatemoraldomains,combinesothers,andincludesnoncooperative domains.Mostegregiously,thelackoftheorymeansthatMFTcannotrectify theseerrors;itcannotmakeprincipledpredictionsaboutwhat(other) foundationstheremightbe,thusitcannotmakeprogresstowardacumulative scienceofmorality. MFTalsohasempiricalproblems.ThemainproblemisthatMFT’sfive-factormodelofmoralityhasnotbeenwellsupportedbystudiesusingtheMFQ.Someoftheoriginalstudies,aswellasreplicationsinItaly,NewZealand,Korea,Sweden,andTurkey,andalsoa27countrystudyusingtheshort-formMFQ,havefoundthatMFT’sfive-factormodelfallsshortoftheconventionallyacceptabledegreeofmodelfit(CFIs<0.90).Thesestudiestypicallyfindthatatwo-factormodel—“Care-Fairness”and“Loyalty-Authority-Purity”—isabetterfit.AndsodespiteMFTpromisingfivemoraldomains,theMFQtypicallydeliversonlytwo.TheMFQdoesnotdistinguishdomainsdedicatedtoFairness,Loyalty,orAuthority;nordoesitestablishthatCareandPurityaredistinctmoraldomains.Simplyput,itdoesnotestablishthattherearefivemoralfoundations.Otherresearchhastakenissuewithspecificfoundations,especiallyPurityandthelinkbetweendisgustandmorality;butthat’sastoryforanothertime. Totheircredit,proponentsofMFTacknowledgetheseproblems.Theyacceptthattheoriginallistoffoundationswas“arbitrary,”basedonalimitedreviewofonly“fivebooksandarticles,”andneverintendedtobe“exhaustive.”Andtheyhavepositivelyencouragedresearchthatcould“demonstratetheexistenceofanadditionalfoundation,orshowthatanyofthecurrentfivefoundationsshouldbemergedoreliminated.” AndsothatiswhatmycolleaguesandIhavedone.Butwehavenotdonesobymakingyetmore“adhoc”suggestions.Wehavegonebacktofirstprinciples,tothetheorythatcanprovidearigorous,systematicfoundationforacooperativetheoryofmorality—themathematicsofcooperation,thetheoryofnon-zero-sumgames.WecallthisapproachMorality-as-Cooperation(MAC). AccordingtoMAC,moralityconsists ofacollectionofbiologicalandculturalsolutionstotheproblemsof cooperationrecurrentinhumansociallife.For50millionyearshumansand theirancestorshavelivedinsocialgroups.Duringthistime,theyfaceda rangeofdifferentproblemsofcooperation,andtheyevolvedandinventeda rangeofdifferentsolutionstothem.Together,thesebiologicalandcultural mechanismsprovidethemotivationforcooperativebehavior;andtheyprovide thecriteriabywhichweevaluatethebehaviorofothers.And,accordingto MAC,itispreciselythiscollectionofcooperativetraits—theseinstincts, intuitions,andinstitutions—thatconstitutehumanmorality. For50millionyearshumansandtheirancestorshavelivedinsocialgroups.Duringthistime,theyfacedarangeofdifferentproblemsofcooperation,andtheyevolvedandinventedarangeofdifferentsolutionstothem. Whichproblemsofcooperationdo humansface?Andhowaretheysolved?That’swheregametheorycomesin.Game theorymakesaprincipleddistinctionbetweenzero-sumandnon-zero-sumgames. Zero-sumgamesarecompetitiveinteractionsthathaveawinneranda loser;one’sgainisanother’sloss.Non-zero-sumgamesarecooperative interactionsthatcanhavetwowinners;theyarewin-winsituations.Game theoryalsodistinguishesbetweendifferenttypesofnon-zero-sumgamesandthe strategiesusedtoplaythem.Thus,itdelineatesmathematicallydistincttypes ofcooperation. Areviewofthisliteraturesuggests thatthereare(atleast)sevenwellestablishedtypesofcooperation:(1)theallocationofresourcestokin;(2) coordinationtomutualadvantage;(3)socialexchange;andconflictresolution throughcontestsfeaturing(4)hawkishdisplaysofdominanceand(5)dove-ish displaysofsubmission;(6)divisionofdisputedresources;and(7)recognition ofpriorpossession. Inmyresearch,Ihaveshownhoweachofthesetypesofcooperationcanbeusedtoidentifyandexplainadistincttypeofmorality. (1)Kinselectionexplainswhywefeelaspecialdutyofcareforourfamilies,andwhyweabhorincest.(2)Mutualismexplainswhyweformgroupsandcoalitions(thereisstrengthandsafetyinnumbers),andhencewhywevalueunity,solidarity,andloyalty.(3)Socialexchangeexplainswhywetrustothers,reciprocatefavors,feelgratitudeandguilt,makeamends,andforgive.Andconflictresolutionexplainswhywe(4)engageincostlydisplaysofprowesssuchasbraveryandgenerosity,whywe(5)expresshumilityanddefertooursuperiors,whywe(6)dividedisputedresourcesfairlyandequitably,andwhywe(7)respectothers’propertyandrefrainfromstealing. Ourresearchhasshownthatexamplesoftheseseventypesofcooperativebehavior—helpyourfamily,helpyourgroup,returnfavors,bebrave,defertoyoursuperiors,befair,andrespectothers’property—areconsideredmorallygoodallaroundtheworldandareprobablycross-culturalmoraluniversals. Ourresearchhasshownthatexamplesoftheseseventypesofcooperativebehavior—helpyourfamily,helpyourgroup,returnfavors,bebrave,defertoyoursuperiors,befair,andrespectothers’property—areconsideredmorallygoodallaroundtheworld. AndwehaveusedMAC’sframeworktodevelopanewmeasureofmoralvalues thatpromises,anddelivers,sevenmoraldomains: (1)Family,(2)Group,(3)Reciprocity,(4)Heroism,(5)Deference,(6)Fairness,and(7)Property.ThisnewMorality-as-CooperationQuestionnaire(MAC-Q)introducesthefourmoraldomainsthatweremissingfromMFT:Family,Reciprocity,Heroism,Property.AndunliketheMFQ,itdistinguishesFamilyfromGroup(Loyalty),Group(Loyalty)fromDeference(Authority),andReciprocityfromFairness. Sothisprincipledapproachto morality,groundedfirmlyintheunderlyinglogicofcooperation,outperforms anunprincipledapproach.MACexplainsmoretypesofmoralitythanMFT.Itcan generatenovelprincipledpredictionsaboutmorality’scontentand structure—predictionsthathavethusfarbeensupportedbypsychologicaland anthropologicalresearch.Anditleadstoamorecomprehensiveandreliable measureofmoralvalues. Equippedwiththisnewmapofthe morallandscape,wecannowexaminefamiliargroundingreaterdetailand surveypreviouslyunexploredterritory.Wecantakeafreshlookatthegenetic basis,andthepsychologicalarchitecture,ofmorality.Wecanreassessthe relationshipbetweenmoralsandpolitics.Andwecaninvestigatehowandwhy moralvaluesvaryaroundtheworld.Aboveall,byusingatheorytogenerate newtestablepredictions,wecanpavethewayforagenuinescienceof morality. LookInsidePrintEdition#2–BrainMeetsWorld PopularonBehavioralScientist IncorrectIdeasAbout‘WhyWeWork’WarpOurOrganizations…AndOurViewsofHumanNature ByEvanNesterak TheCraftofForecastingOurPossibleFutures:AConversationwithJaneMcGonigal ByAntoniaViolante TheFiveVitalSignsofaScalableIdeaandHowtoAvoidaVoltageDrop ByJohnA.List ResearchLead:ATrafficInterventionBackfires,HowLoveinLiteratureTracksEconomicDevelopment,andMore ByEvanNesterak,HeatherGraci,andAntoniaViolante BehavioralScientistWritingWorkshopSpring/Summer2022 ByEvanNesterakandCameronFrench ViewMostPopular OliverScottCurry OliverScottCurryisaseniorresearcherattheInstituteofCognitiveandEvolutionaryAnthropology,UniversityofOxford.Hisresearchinvestigatesthenature,content,andstructureofhumanmorality,usingarangeoftechniquesfromphilosophy,experimentalandsocialpsychology,andcomparativeanthropology. Twitter Website FurtherReading&Resources Curry,O.S.,JonesChesters,M.,&VanLissa,C.J.(2019).Mappingmoralitywithacompass:Testingthetheoryof‘morality-as-cooperation’withanewquestionnaire.JournalofResearchinPersonality,78,106-124.(Link) morality RecommendedforYou Science ResearchLead:ATrafficInterventionBackfires,HowLoveinLiteratureTracksEconomicDevelopment,andMore ByEvanNesterak,HeatherGraci,andAntoniaViolante Science OpeningupScience—toSkeptics ByRohanR.Arcot andHunterGehlbach Science ResearchLead:MistakingGoogle’sKnowledgeforYourOwn,OversimplifyingEffectsofTech,Scientists‘Donate’alotofTimetoJournalPublishers,andMore ByEvanNesterak