Recycling - Wikipedia

Recycling is the process of converting waste materials into new materials and objects. The recovery of energy from waste materials is often included in this ... Recycling FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Thisisthelatestacceptedrevision,reviewedon23May2022. Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Convertingwastematerialsintonewproducts Thisarticleisaboutrecyclingofwastematerials.Forrecyclingofwasteenergy,seeEnergyrecycling. "Recycled"redirectshere.Forthealbum,seeRecycled(Nektaralbum). Thethreechasingarrowsoftheuniversalrecyclingsymbol Municipalwasterecyclingrate(%),2015 Recyclingistheprocessofconvertingwastematerialsintonewmaterialsandobjects.Therecoveryofenergyfromwastematerialsisoftenincludedinthisconcept.Therecyclabilityofamaterialdependsonitsabilitytoreacquirethepropertiesithadinitsoriginalstate.[1]Itisanalternativeto"conventional"wastedisposalthatcansavematerialandhelplowergreenhousegasemissions.Itcanalsopreventthewasteofpotentiallyusefulmaterialsandreducetheconsumptionoffreshrawmaterials,reducingenergyuse,airpollution(fromincineration)andwaterpollution(fromlandfilling). Recyclingisakeycomponentofmodernwastereductionandisthethirdcomponentofthe"Reduce,Reuse,andRecycle"wastehierarchy.[2][3]Itpromotesenvironmentalsustainabilitybyremovingrawmaterialinputandredirectingwasteoutputintheeconomicsystem.[4]TherearesomeISOstandardsrelatedtorecycling,suchasISO15270:2008forplasticswasteandISO14001:2015forenvironmentalmanagementcontrolofrecyclingpractice. Recyclablematerialsincludemanykindsofglass,paper,cardboard,metal,plastic,tires,textiles,batteries,andelectronics.Thecompostingandotherreuseofbiodegradablewaste—suchasfoodandgardenwaste—isalsoaformofrecycling.[5]Materialsforrecyclingareeitherdeliveredtoahouseholdrecyclingcenterorpickedupfromcurbsidebins,thensorted,cleaned,andreprocessedintonewmaterialsformanufacturingnewproducts. Inidealimplementations,recyclingamaterialproducesafreshsupplyofthesamematerial—forexample,usedofficepaperwouldbeconvertedintonewofficepaper,andusedpolystyrenefoamintonewpolystyrene.Sometypesofmaterials,suchasmetalcans,canberemanufacturedrepeatedlywithoutlosingtheirpurity.[6]Withothermaterials,thisisoftendifficultortooexpensive(comparedwithproducingthesameproductfromrawmaterialsorothersources),so"recycling"ofmanyproductsandmaterialsinvolvestheirreuseinproducingdifferentmaterials(forexample,paperboard).Anotherformofrecyclingisthesalvageofconstituentmaterialsfromcomplexproducts,duetoeithertheirintrinsicvalue(suchasleadfromcarbatteriesandgoldfromprintedcircuitboards),ortheirhazardousnature(e.g.removalandreuseofmercuryfromthermometersandthermostats). Contents 1History 1.1Origins 1.2Wartime 1.3Post-WorldWarII 2Legislation 2.1Supply 2.2Government-mandateddemand 3Recyclates 3.1Qualityofrecyclate 3.2RecyclateQualityActionPlan(Scotland) 4Recyclingconsumerwaste 4.1Collection 4.1.1Curbsidecollection 4.1.1.1Sourceseparation 4.1.2Buy-backcenters 4.1.3Drop-offcenters 4.1.4Distributedrecycling 4.2Sorting 5Recyclingindustrialwaste 5.1Plasticrecycling 5.1.1Physicalrecycling 5.1.2Chemicalrecycling 5.1.3Wasteplasticpyrolysistofueloil 6Recyclingloops 7Recyclingcodes 8Cost–benefitanalysis 8.1Tradeinrecyclates 9Criticismsandresponses 9.1Energyandmaterialflows 9.2Costs 9.3Workingconditions 9.4Environmentalimpact 9.5Possibleincomelossandsocialcosts 10Publicparticipationrates 11Recyclinginart 12Seealso 13References 14Furtherreading 15Externallinks 15.1Relatedjournals History[edit] Origins[edit] Recyclinghasbeenacommonpracticeformostofhumanhistory,withrecordedadvocatesasfarbackasPlatointhefourthcenturyBC.[citationneeded]Duringperiodswhenresourceswerescarce,archaeologicalstudiesofancientwastedumpsshowlesshouseholdwaste(suchasash,brokentools,andpottery),implyingthatmorewastewasrecycledinplaceofnewmaterial.[7]However,archaeologicalartefactsmadefromrecyclablematerial,suchasglassormetal,mayneitherbetheoriginalobjectnorresembleit,withtheconsequencethatasuccessfulancientrecyclingeconomycanbecomeinvisiblewhenrecyclingissynonymouswithre-meltingratherthanreuse.[8] Inpre-industrialtimes,thereisevidenceofscrapbronzeandothermetalsbeingcollectedinEuropeandmelteddownforcontinuousreuse.[9]Paperrecyclingwasfirstrecordedin1031whenJapaneseshopssoldrepulpedpaper.[10][11]InBritaindustandashfromwoodandcoalfireswascollectedby"dustmen"anddowncycledasabasematerialforbrickmaking.Theseformsofrecyclingweredrivenbytheeconomicadvantageofobtainingrecycledmaterialsinsteadofvirginmaterial,andtheneedforwasteremovalinever-more-denselypopulatedareas.[7]In1813,BenjaminLawdevelopedtheprocessofturningragsinto"shoddy"and"mungo"woolinBatley,Yorkshire,whichcombinedrecycledfiberswithvirginwool.[12]TheWestYorkshireshoddyindustryintownssuchasBatleyandDewsburylastedfromtheearly19thcenturytoatleast1914. Industrializationspurreddemandforaffordablematerials.Inadditiontorags,ferrousscrapmetalswerecovetedastheywerecheapertoacquirethanvirginore.Railroadspurchasedandsoldscrapmetalinthe19thcentury,andthegrowingsteelandautomobileindustriespurchasedscrapintheearly20thcentury.Manysecondarygoodswerecollected,processedandsoldbypeddlerswhoscoureddumpsandcitystreetsfordiscardedmachinery,pots,pans,andothersourcesofmetal.ByWorldWarI,thousandsofsuchpeddlersroamedthestreetsofAmericancities,takingadvantageofmarketforcestorecyclepost-consumermaterialsintoindustrialproduction.[13] Manufacturersofbeveragebottles,includingSchweppes,[14]beganofferingrefundablerecyclingdepositsinGreatBritainandIrelandaround1800.AnofficialrecyclingsystemwithrefundabledepositsforbottleswasestablishedinSwedenin1884,andforaluminumbeveragecansin1982;itledtorecyclingratesof84–99%,dependingontype.(Glassbottlescanberefilledaround20times.[15]) Wartime[edit] AmericanposterfromWorldWarII BritishposterfromWorldWarII RemnantsofironfencebarsinYorkWhip-Ma-Whop-Ma-Gate.SuchpublicpropertyfencesweresawedfortheironandrecycledduringWorldWarII. Newchemicalindustriescreatedinthelate19thcenturybothinventednewmaterials(e.g.Bakelitein1907)andpromisedtotransformvaluelessintovaluablematerials.Proverbially,youcouldnotmakeasilkpurseofasow'sear—untiltheUSfirmArthurD.Littlepublishedin1921"OntheMakingofSilkPursesfromSows'Ears",itsresearchprovingthatwhen"chemistryputsonoverallsandgetsdowntobusiness[...]newvaluesappear.Newandbetterpathsareopenedtoreachthegoalsdesired."[16] Recycling—or"salvage",asitwasthenusuallyknown—wasamajorissueforgovernmentsduringWorldWarII,wherefinancialconstraintsandsignificantmaterialshortagesmadeitnecessarytoreusegoodsandrecyclematerials.[17]Theseresourceshortagescausedbytheworldwars,andothersuchworld-changingevents,greatlyencouragedrecycling.[18][17]Itbecamenecessaryformosthomestorecycletheirwaste,allowingpeopletomakethemostofwhatwasavailable.Recyclinghouseholdmaterialsalsomeantmoreresourceswereleftavailableforwarefforts.[17]Massivegovernmentcampaigns,suchastheNationalSalvageCampaigninBritainandtheSalvageforVictorycampaignintheUnitedStates,occurredineveryfightingnation,urgingcitizenstodonatemetal,paper,rags,andrubberasapatrioticduty. Post-WorldWarII[edit] Aconsiderableinvestmentinrecyclingoccurredinthe1970sduetorisingenergycosts.[19]Recyclingaluminiumusesonly5%oftheenergyofvirginproduction.Glass,paperandothermetalshavelessdramaticbutsignificantenergysavingswhenrecycled.[20] Althoughconsumerelectronicshavebeenpopularsincethe1920s,recyclingthemwasalmostunheardofuntilearly1991.[21]ThefirstelectronicwasterecyclingschemewasimplementedinSwitzerland,beginningwithcollectionofoldrefrigerators,thenexpandingtocoveralldevices.[22]Whentheseprogramswerecreated,manycountriescouldn'tdealwiththesheerquantityofe-waste,oritshazardousnature,andbegantoexporttheproblemtodevelopingcountrieswithoutenforcedenvironmentallegislation.(Forexample,recyclingcomputermonitorsintheUnitedStatescosts10timesmorethaninChina.)DemandforelectronicwasteinAsiabegantogrowwhenscrapyardsfoundtheycouldextractvaluablesubstancessuchascopper,silver,iron,silicon,nickel,andgoldduringtherecyclingprocess.[23]The2000ssawaboominboththesalesofelectronicdevicesandtheirgrowthasawastestream:In2002,e-wastegrewfasterthananyothertypeofwasteintheEU.[24]Thisspurredinvestmentinmodernautomatedfacilitiestocopewiththeinflux,especiallyafterstrictlawswereimplementedin2003.[25][26][27][28] Asof2014,theEuropeanUnionhadabout50%ofworldshareofwasteandrecyclingindustries,withover60,000companiesemploying500,000peopleandaturnoverof€24billion.[29]EUcountriesaremandatedtoreachrecyclingratesofatleast50%;leadingcountriesarealreadyataround65%.TheoverallEUaveragewas39%in2013[30] andisrisingsteadily,to45%in2015.[31][32] In2015,theUnitedNationsGeneralAssemblyset17SustainableDevelopmentGoals.Goal12,ResponsibleConsumptionandProduction,specifies11targets"toensuresustainableconsumptionandproductionpatterns".[33]Thefifthtarget,Target12.5,isdefinedassubstantiallyreducingwastegenerationby2030,indicatedbytheNationalRecyclingRate. In2018,changesintherecyclingindustryhavesparkedaglobal"crisis".On31December2017,Chinaannouncedits"NationalSword"policy,settingnewstandardsforimportsofrecyclablematerialandbanningmaterialsdeemedtoo"dirty"or"hazardous".Thenewpolicycauseddrasticdisruptionsintheglobalrecyclingmarket,andreducedthepricesofscrapplasticandlow-gradepaper.ExportsofrecyclablematerialsfromG7countriestoChinadroppeddramatically,withmanyshiftingtocountriesinsoutheastAsia.Thisgeneratedsignificantconcernabouttherecyclingindustry'spracticesandenvironmentalsustainability.Theabruptshiftcausedcountriestoacceptmorematerialsthantheycouldprocess,andraisedfundamentalquestionsaboutshippingwastefromdevelopedcountriestocountrieswithfewenvironmentalregulations—apracticethatpredatedthecrisis.[34] Legislation[edit] Supply[edit] Forarecyclingprogramtowork,alarge,stablesupplyofrecyclablematerialiscrucial.Threelegislativeoptionshavebeenusedtocreatesuchsupplies:mandatoryrecyclingcollection,containerdepositlegislation,andrefusebans.Mandatorycollectionlawssetrecyclingtargetsforcities,usuallyintheformthatacertainpercentageofamaterialmustbedivertedfromthecity'swastestreambyatargetdate.Thecityisresponsibleforworkingtomeetthistarget.[5] Containerdepositlegislationmandatesrefundsforthereturnofcertaincontainers—typicallyglass,plasticandmetal.Whenaproductinsuchacontainerispurchased,asmallsurchargeisaddedthattheconsumercanreclaimwhenthecontainerisreturnedtoacollectionpoint.Theseprogramshavesucceededincreatinganaverage80%recyclingrate.[35]Despitesuchgoodresults,theshiftincollectioncostsfromlocalgovernmenttoindustryandconsumershascreatedstrongoppositioninsomeareas[5]—forexample,wheremanufacturersbeartheresponsibilityforrecyclingtheirproducts.IntheEuropeanUnion,theWEEEDirectiverequiresproducersofconsumerelectronicstoreimbursetherecyclers'costs.[36] Analternativewaytoincreasethesupplyofrecyclatesistobanthedisposalofcertainmaterialsaswaste,oftenincludingusedoil,oldbatteries,tires,andgardenwaste.Thiscancreateaviableeconomyfortheproperdisposaloftheproducts.Caremustbetakenthatenoughrecyclingservicesexisttomeetthesupply,orsuchbanscancreateincreasedillegaldumping.[5] Government-mandateddemand[edit] Fourformsoflegislationhavealsobeenusedtoincreaseandmaintainthedemandforrecycledmaterials:minimumrecycledcontentmandates,utilizationrates,procurementpolicies,andrecycledproductlabeling.[5] Bothminimumrecycledcontentmandatesandutilizationratesincreasedemandbyforcingmanufacturerstoincluderecyclingintheiroperations.Contentmandatesspecifythatacertainpercentageofanewproductmustconsistofrecycledmaterial.Utilizationratesareamoreflexibleoption:Industriescanmeettheirrecyclingtargetsatanypointoftheiroperations,orevencontractoutrecyclinginexchangefortradablecredits.Opponentstothesemethodscitetheirlargeincreaseinreportingrequirements,andclaimthattheyrobtheindustryofflexibility.[5][37] Governmentshaveusedtheirownpurchasingpowertoincreaserecyclingdemandthrough"procurementpolicies".Thesepoliciesareeither"set-asides",whichreserveacertainamountofspendingforrecycledproducts;or"pricepreference"programsthatprovidelargerbudgetswhenrecycleditemsarepurchased.Additionalregulationscantargetspecificcases:intheUnitedStates,forexample,theEnvironmentalProtectionAgencymandatesthepurchaseofoil,paper,tiresandbuildinginsulationfromrecycledorre-refinedsourceswheneverpossible.[5] Thefinalgovernmentregulationtowardincreaseddemandisrecycledproductlabeling.Whenproducersarerequiredtolabeltheirpackagingwiththeamountofrecycledmaterialitcontains(includingthepackaging),consumerscanmakemoreeducatedchoices.Consumerswithsufficientbuyingpowercanchoosemoreenvironmentallyconsciousoptions,promptingproducerstoincreasetherecycledmaterialintheirproductsandincreasedemand.Standardizedrecyclinglabelingcanalsohaveapositiveeffectonthesupplyofrecyclateswhenitspecifieshowandwheretheproductcanberecycled.[5] Recyclates[edit] Glassrecoveredbycrushingonlyonekindofbeerbottle "Recyclate"isarawmaterialsenttoandprocessedinawasterecyclingplantormaterials-recoveryfacility[38]soitcanbeusedintheproductionofnewmaterialsandproducts.Forexample,plasticbottlescanbemadeintoplasticpelletsandsyntheticfabrics.[39] Qualityofrecyclate[edit] Thequalityofrecyclatesisoneoftheprincipalchallengesforthesuccessofalong-termvisionofagreeneconomyandachievingzerowaste.Itgenerallyreferstohowmuchofitiscomposedoftargetmaterial,versusnon-targetmaterialandothernon-recyclablematerial.[40]Steelandothermetalshaveintrinsicallyhigherrecyclatequality;itisestimatedthattwo-thirdsofallnewsteelcomesfromrecycledsteel.[41]Onlytargetmaterialislikelytoberecycled,sohigheramountsofnon-targetandnon-recyclablematerialscanreducethequantityofrecycledproducts.[40]Ahighproportionofnon-targetandnon-recyclablematerialcanmakeitmoredifficulttoachieve"high-quality"recycling;andifrecyclateisofpoorquality,itismorelikelytoendupbeingdown-cycledor,inmoreextremecases,senttootherrecoveryoptionsorlandfilled.[40]Forexample,tofacilitatetheremanufacturingofclearglassproducts,therearetightrestrictionsforcoloredglassenteringthere-meltprocess.Anotherexampleisthedowncyclingofplastic,whereproductssuchasplasticfoodpackagingareoftendowncycledintolowerqualityproducts,anddonotgetrecycledintothesameplasticfoodpackaging. Thequalityofrecyclatenotonlysupportshigh-qualityrecycling,butitcanalsodeliversignificantenvironmentalbenefitsbyreducing,reusing,andkeepingproductsoutoflandfills.[40]High-qualityrecyclingcansupporteconomicgrowthbymaximizingthevalueofwastematerial.[40]Higherincomelevelsfromthesaleofqualityrecyclatescanreturnvaluesignificanttolocalgovernments,householdsandbusinesses.[40]Pursuinghigh-qualityrecyclingcanalsopromoteconsumerandbusinessconfidenceinthewasteandresourcemanagementsector,andmayencourageinvestmentinit. Therearemanyactionsalongtherecyclingsupplychain,eachofwhichcanaffectrecyclatequality.[42]Wasteproducerswhoplacenon-targetandnon-recyclablewastesinrecyclingcollectionscanaffectthequalityoffinalrecyclatestreams,andrequireextraeffortstodiscardthosematerialsatlaterstagesintherecyclingprocess.[42]Differentcollectionsystemscaninducedifferentlevelsofcontamination.Whenmultiplematerialsarecollectedtogether,extraeffortisrequiredtosortthemintoseparatestreamsandcansignificantlyreducethequalityofthefinalproducts.[42]Transportationandthecompactionofmaterialscanalsomakethismoredifficult.Despiteimprovementsintechnologyandqualityofrecyclate,sortingfacilitiesarestillnot100%effectiveinseparatingmaterials.[42]Whenmaterialsarestoredoutside,wheretheycanbecomewet,canalsocauseproblemsforre-processors.Furthersortingstepsmayberequiredtosatisfactorilyreducetheamountofnon-targetandnon-recyclablematerial.[42] RecyclateQualityActionPlan(Scotland)[edit] Scotland'sRecyclateQualityActionPlanproposesanumberofactionstheScottishGovernmentwantstotaketoincreasethequalityofmaterialscollectedforrecyclingandsortedatrecoveryfacilitiesbeforeitisexportedorsoldonthereprocessingmarket.[42]Itsobjectivesareto:[43] Increaserecyclatequality,andcreategreatertransparencyaboutit. Helpthosecontractingwithrecyclingfacilitiesidentifywhatisrequiredofthem. EnsurecompliancewiththeWaste(Scotland)Regulations2012. Stimulateahouseholdmarketforqualityrecyclate. Addressandreduceissuesaroundwasteshipmentregulations. Theplanfocusesonthreekeyareas,with14actionstoincreasethequalityofmaterialscollected,sortedandpresentedtotheprocessingmarketinScotland.[43]Theseareasare:[42] Collectionsystemsandinputcontamination Sortingfacilities—materialsamplingandtransparency Materialqualitybenchmarkingandstandards Recyclingconsumerwaste[edit] Collection[edit] Athree-sidedbinatarailwaystationinGermany,intendedtoseparatepaper(left)andplasticwrappings(right)fromotherwaste(back) Anumberofsystemshavebeenimplementedtocollectrecyclatesfromthegeneralwastestream,occupyingdifferentplacesonthespectrumoftrade-offbetweenpublicconvenienceandgovernmenteaseandexpense.Thethreemaincategoriesofcollectionaredrop-offcenters,buy-backcentersandcurbsidecollection.[5]Abouttwo-thirdsofthecostofrecyclingisincurredinthecollectionphase.[44] Curbsidecollection[edit] Mainarticle:Curbsidecollection ArecyclingtruckcollectingthecontentsofarecyclingbininCanberra,Australia EmptyingofsegregatedrubbishcontainersinTomaszówMazowiecki,Poland Curbsidecollectionencompassesmanysubtlydifferentsystems,whichdiffermostlyonwhereintheprocesstherecyclatesaresortedandcleaned.Themaincategoriesaremixedwastecollection,commingledrecyclables,andsourceseparation.[5]Awastecollectionvehiclegenerallypicksupthewaste. Inmixedwastecollection,recyclatesarecollectedmixedwiththerestofthewaste,andthedesiredmaterialsaresortedoutandcleanedatacentralsortingfacility.Thisresultsinalargeamountofrecyclablewaste(especiallypaper)beingtoosoiledtoreprocess,buthasadvantagesaswell:Thecityneednotpayfortheseparatecollectionofrecyclates,nopubliceducationisneeded,andanychangestotherecyclabilityofcertainmaterialsareimplementedwheresortingoccurs.[5] Inacommingledorsingle-streamsystem,recyclablesaremixedbutkeptseparatefromnon-recyclablewaste.Thisgreatlyreducestheneedforpost-collectioncleaning,butrequirespubliceducationonwhatmaterialsarerecyclable.[5][9] Sourceseparation[edit] Sourceseparationistheotherextreme,whereeachmaterialiscleanedandsortedpriortocollection.Itrequirestheleastpost-collectionsortingandproducesthepurestrecyclates.However,itincursadditionaloperatingcostsforcollectingeachmaterial,andrequiresextensivepubliceducationtoavoidrecyclatecontamination.[5]InOregon,USA,OregonDEQsurveyedmulti-familypropertymanagers;abouthalfofthemreportedproblems,includingcontaminationofrecyclablesduetotrespasserssuchastransientsgainingaccesstocollectionareas.[45] Sourceseparationusedtobethepreferredmethodduetothehighcostofsortingcommingled(mixedwaste)collection.However,advancesinsortingtechnologyhavesubstantiallyloweredthisoverhead,andmanyareasthathaddevelopedsourceseparationprogramshaveswitchedtowhatiscalledco-mingledcollection.[9] Buy-backcenters[edit] ReversevendingmachineinTomaszówMazowiecki,Poland AtBuy-backcenters,separated,cleanedrecyclatesarepurchased,providingaclearincentiveforuseandcreatingastablesupply.Thepost-processedmaterialcanthenbesold.Ifprofitable,thisconservestheemissionofgreenhousegases;ifunprofitable,itincreasestheiremission.Buy-backcentresgenerallyneedgovernmentsubsidiestobeviable.Accordingtoa1993reportbytheU.S.NationalWaste&RecyclingAssociation,itcostsanaverage$50toprocessatonofmaterialthatcanberesoldfor$30.[5] IntheUS,thevaluepertonofmixedrecyclableswas$180in2011,$80in2015,and$100in2017.[46] In2017,glasswasessentiallyvaluelessbecauseofthelowcostofsand,itsmajorcomponent.Similarly,lowoilcoststhwartedplasticrecycling.[46] In2017,Napa,Californiawasreimbursedabout20%ofitsrecyclingcosts.[46] Drop-offcenters[edit] Drop-offcentersrequirethewasteproducertocarryrecyclatestoacentrallocation—eitheraninstalledormobilecollectionstationorthereprocessingplantitself.Theyaretheeasiesttypeofcollectiontoestablishbutsufferfromlowandunpredictablethroughput. Distributedrecycling[edit] Forsomewastematerialssuchasplastic,recenttechnicaldevicescalledrecyclebots[47]enableaformofdistributedrecycling.Preliminarylife-cycleanalysis(LCA)indicatesthatsuchdistributedrecyclingofHDPEtomakefilamentfor3Dprintersinruralregionsconsumeslessenergythanusingvirginresin,orusingconventionalrecyclingprocesseswiththeirassociatedtransportation.[48][49] Sorting[edit] Videoofrecyclingsortingfacilityandprocesses Oncecommingledrecyclatesarecollectedanddeliveredtoamaterialsrecoveryfacility,thematerialsmustbesorted.Thisisdoneinaseriesofstages,manyofwhichinvolveautomatedprocesses,enablingatruckloadofmaterialtobefullysortedinlessthananhour.[9]Someplantscannowsortmaterialsautomatically;thisisknownassingle-streamrecycling.Automaticsortingmaybeaidedbyroboticsandmachinelearning.[50][51]Inplants,avarietyofmaterialsissortedincludingpaper,differenttypesofplastics,glass,metals,foodscraps,andmosttypesofbatteries.[52]A30%increaseinrecyclingrateshasbeenseeninareaswiththeseplants.[53]IntheUS,thereareover300materialsrecoveryfacilities.[54] Initially,commingledrecyclatesareremovedfromthecollectionvehicleandplacedonaconveyorbeltspreadoutinasinglelayer.Largepiecesofcorrugatedfiberboardandplasticbagsareremovedbyhandatthisstage,astheycancauselatermachinerytojam.[9] Earlysortingofrecyclablematerials:glassandplasticbottlesinPoland. Next,automatedmachinerysuchasdiskscreensandairclassifiersseparatetherecyclatesbyweight,splittinglighterpaperandplasticfromheavierglassandmetal.Cardboardisremovedfrommixedpaper,andthemostcommontypesofplastic—PET(#1)andHDPE(#2)—arecollected,sothesematerialscanbedivertedintothepropercollectionchannels.Thisisusuallydonebyhand;butinsomesortingcenters,spectroscopicscannersareusedtodifferentiatebetweentypesofpaperandplasticbasedontheirabsorbedwavelengths.[9]Plasticstendtobeincompatiblewitheachotherduetodifferencesinchemicalcomposition;theirpolymermoleculesrepeleachother,similartooilandwater.[55] Strongmagnetsareusedtoseparateoutferrousmetalssuchasiron,steelandtincans.Non-ferrousmetalsareejectedbymagneticeddycurrents:Arotatingmagneticfieldinducesanelectriccurrentaroundaluminumcans,creatinganeddycurrentinsidethecansthatisrepulsedbyalargemagneticfield,ejectingthecansfromthestream.[9] ArecyclingpointinNewByth,Scotland,withseparatecontainersforpaper,plastics,anddifferentlycoloredglass. Finally,glassissortedaccordingtoitscolor:brown,amber,green,orclear.Itmaybesortedeitherbyhand,[9]orbyamachinethatusescoloredfilterstodetectcolors.Glassfragmentssmallerthan10millimetres(0.39 in)cannotbesortedautomatically,andaremixedtogetheras"glassfines".[56] In2003,SanFrancisco'sDepartmentoftheEnvironmentsetacitywidegoalofzerowasteby2020.[57]SanFrancisco'srefusehauler,Recology,operatesaneffectiverecyclablessortingfacilitythathashelpedthecityreacharecord-breakinglandfilldiversionrateof80%asof2021.[58]OtherAmericancities,includingLosAngeles,haveachievedsimilarrates. Recyclingindustrialwaste[edit] Moundsofshreddedrubbertiresreadyforprocessing Althoughmanygovernmentprogramsconcentrateonrecyclingathome,64%ofwasteintheUnitedKingdomisgeneratedbyindustry.[59]Thefocusofmanyrecyclingprogramsinindustryistheircost-effectiveness.Theubiquitousnatureofcardboardpackagingmakescardboardacommonlywasteproductrecycledbycompaniesthatdealheavilyinpackagedgoods,suchasretailstores,warehouses,andgoodsdistributors.Otherindustriesdealinnicheandspecializedproducts,dependingonthewastematerialstheyhandle. Glass,lumber,woodpulpandpapermanufacturersalldealdirectlyincommonlyrecycledmaterials;however,independenttiredealersmaycollectandrecyclerubbertiresforaprofit. ThewasteproducedfromburningcoalinaCoal-firedpowerstationisoftencalledflyashintheUnitedStatesorfuelashelsewhere.Itisaveryusefulmaterialandusedinconcreteconstruction.ItexhibitsPozzolanicactivity.[60] Levelsofmetalsrecyclingaregenerallylow.In2010,theInternationalResourcePanel,hostedbytheUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme(UNEP),publishedreportsonmetalstocks[61]andtheirrecyclingrates.[61]Itreportedthattheincreaseintheuseofmetalsduringthe20thandintothe21stcenturyhasledtoasubstantialshiftinmetalstocksfrombelow-groundtouseinabove-groundapplicationswithinsociety.Forexample,intheUS,in-usecoppergrewfrom73to238 kgpercapitabetween1932–1999. Thereport'sauthorsobservedthat,asmetalsareinherentlyrecyclable,metalstocksinsocietycanserveashugeabove-groundmines(theterm"urbanmining"hasthusbeencoined[62]).However,theyfoundthattherecyclingratesofmanymetalsarelow.Theywarnedthattherecyclingratesofsomeraremetalsusedinapplicationssuchasmobilephones,batterypacksforhybridcarsandfuelcells,aresolowthatunlessfutureend-of-liferecyclingratesaredramaticallyincreased,thesecriticalmetalswillbecomeunavailableforuseinmoderntechnology. Themilitaryrecyclessomemetals.TheU.S.Navy'sShipDisposalProgramusesshipbreakingtoreclaimthesteelofoldvessels.Shipsmayalsobesunktocreateartificialreefs.Uraniumisadensemetalthathasqualitiessuperiortoleadandtitaniumformanymilitaryandindustrialuses.Uraniumleftoverfromprocessingitintonuclearweaponsandfuelfornuclearreactorsiscalleddepleteduranium,andisusedbyallbranchesoftheU.S.militaryforthedevelopmentofsuchthingsasarmor-piercingshellsandshielding. Theconstructionindustrymayrecycleconcreteandoldroadsurfacepavement,sellingthesematerialsforprofit. Somerapidlygrowingindustries,particularlytherenewableenergyandsolarphotovoltaictechnologyindustries,areproactivelycreatingrecyclingpoliciesevenbeforetheirwastestreamshaveconsiderablevolume,anticipatingfuturedemand.[63] Recyclingofplasticsismoredifficult,asmostprogramsarenotabletoreachthenecessarylevelofquality.RecyclingofPVCoftenresultsindowncyclingofthematerial,whichmeansonlyproductsoflowerqualitystandardcanbemadewiththerecycledmaterial.Furtherinformation:Computerrecycling Furtherinformation:Batteryrecycling Furtherinformation:Solarpanel§ Recycling Furtherinformation:Windturbine§ Demolitionandrecycling Computerprocessorsretrievedfromwastestream E-wasteisagrowingproblem,accountingfor20–50millionmetrictonsofglobalwasteperyearaccordingtotheEPA.ItisalsothefastestgrowingwastestreamintheEU.[24]Manyrecyclersdonotrecyclee-wasteresponsibly.AfterthecargobargeKhianSeadumped14,000metrictonsoftoxicashinHaiti,theBaselConventionwasformedtostemtheflowofhazardoussubstancesintopoorercountries.Theycreatedthee-Stewardscertificationtoensurethatrecyclersareheldtothehigheststandardsforenvironmentalresponsibilityandtohelpconsumersidentifyresponsiblerecyclers.Itoperatesalongsideotherprominentlegislation,suchastheWasteElectricalandElectronicEquipmentDirectiveoftheEUandtheUnitedStatesNationalComputerRecyclingAct,topreventpoisonouschemicalsfromenteringwaterwaysandtheatmosphere. Intherecyclingprocess,televisionsets,monitors,cellphones,andcomputersaretypicallytestedforreuseandrepaired.Ifbroken,theymaybedisassembledforpartsstillhavinghighvalueiflaborischeapenough.Othere-wasteisshreddedtopiecesroughly10centimetres(3.9 in)insizeandmanuallycheckedtoseparatetoxicbatteriesandcapacitors,whichcontainpoisonousmetals.Theremainingpiecesarefurthershreddedto10millimetres(0.39 in)particlesandpassedunderamagnettoremoveferrousmetals.Aneddycurrentejectsnon-ferrousmetals,whicharesortedbydensityeitherbyacentrifugeorvibratingplates.Preciousmetalscanbedissolvedinacid,sorted,andsmeltedintoingots.Theremainingglassandplasticfractionsareseparatedbydensityandsoldtore-processors.TelevisionsetsandmonitorsmustbemanuallydisassembledtoremoveleadfromCRTsandthemercurybacklightfromLCDs.[64][65][66] Vehicles,solarpanelsandwindturbinescanalsoberecycled.Theyoftencontainrare-earthelements(REE)and/orothercriticalrawmaterials.Forelectriccarproduction,largeamountsofREE'saretypicallyrequired.[67] WhereasmanycriticalrawelementsandREE'scanberecovered,environmentalengineerPhillipeBihouixreportsthatrecyclingofindium,gallium,germanium,selenium,andtantalumisstillverydifficultandtheirrecyclingratesareverylow.[68] Plasticrecycling[edit] Mainarticle:Plasticrecycling Acontainerforrecyclingusedplasticspoonsintomaterialfor3Dprinting Plasticrecyclingistheprocessofrecoveringscraporwasteplasticandreprocessingthematerialintousefulproducts,sometimescompletelydifferentinformfromtheiroriginalstate.Forinstance,thiscouldmeanmeltingdownsoftdrinkbottlesandthencastingthemasplasticchairsandtables.[69]Forsometypesofplastic,thesamepieceofplasticcanonlyberecycledabout2–3timesbeforeitsqualitydecreasestothepointwhereitcannolongerbeused.[6] Physicalrecycling[edit] Someplasticsareremeltedtoformnewplasticobjects;forexample,PETwaterbottlescanbeconvertedintopolyesterdestinedforclothing.Adisadvantageofthistypeofrecyclingisthatthemolecularweightofthepolymercanchangefurtherandthelevelsofunwantedsubstancesintheplasticcanincreasewitheachremelt.[citationneeded] Acommercial-builtrecyclingfacilitywassenttotheInternationalSpaceStationinlate2019.Thefacilitytakesinplasticwasteandunneededplasticpartsandphysicallyconvertsthemintospoolsoffeedstockforthespacestationadditivemanufacturingfacilityusedforin-space3Dprinting.[70] Chemicalrecycling[edit] Forsomepolymers,itispossibletoconvertthembackintomonomers,forexample,PETcanbetreatedwithanalcoholandacatalysttoformadialkylterephthalate.Theterephthalatediestercanbeusedwithethyleneglycoltoformanewpolyesterpolymer,thusmakingitpossibletousethepurepolymeragain.In2019,EastmanChemicalCompanyannouncedinitiativesofmethanolysisandsyngasdesignedtohandleagreatervarietyofusedmaterial.[71] Wasteplasticpyrolysistofueloil[edit] Anotherprocessinvolvestheconversionofassortedpolymersintopetroleumbyamuchlessprecisethermaldepolymerizationprocess.Suchaprocesswouldbeabletoacceptalmostanypolymerormixofpolymers,includingthermosetmaterialssuchasvulcanizedrubbertiresandthebiopolymersinfeathersandotheragriculturalwaste.Likenaturalpetroleum,thechemicalsproducedcanbeusedasfuelsorasfeedstock.ARESEMTechnology[72]plantofthistypeinCarthage,Missouri,US,usesturkeywasteasinputmaterial.Gasificationisasimilarprocessbutisnottechnicallyrecyclingsincepolymersarenotlikelytobecometheresult. PlasticPyrolysiscanconvertpetroleumbasedwastestreamssuchasplasticsintoqualityfuels,carbons.Givenbelowisthelistofsuitableplasticrawmaterialsforpyrolysis: Mixedplastic(HDPE,LDPE,PE,PP,Nylon,Teflon,PS,ABS,FRP,PETetc.) Mixedwasteplasticfromwastepapermill Multi-layeredplastic Recyclingloops[edit] Loopsforproduction-waste,productandmaterialrecycling The(ideal)recyclingprocesscanbedifferentiatedintothreeloops,oneformanufacture(production-wasterecycling)andtwofordisposaloftheproduct(productandmaterialrecycling).[2] Theproduct'smanufacturingphase,whichconsistsofmaterialprocessingandfabrication,formstheproduction-wasterecyclingloop.Industrialwastematerialsarefedbackinto,andreusedin,thesameproductionprocess. Theproduct'sdisposalprocessrequirestworecyclingloops:productrecyclingandmaterialrecycling.[2] Theproductorproductpartsarereusedintheproductrecyclingphase.Thishappensinoneoftwoways:theproductisusedretainingtheproductfunctionality("reuse")ortheproductcontinuestobeusedbutwithalteredfunctionality("furtheruse").[2]Theproductdesignisunmodified,oronlyslightlymodified,inbothscenarios. Productdisassemblyrequiresmaterialrecyclingwhereproductmaterialsarerecoveredandrecycled.Ideally,thematerialsareprocessedsotheycanflowbackintotheproductionprocess.[2] Recyclingcodes[edit] Mainarticle:Recyclingcodes Recyclingcodesonproducts Inordertomeetrecyclers'needswhileprovidingmanufacturersaconsistent,uniformsystem,acodingsystemwasdeveloped.Therecyclingcodeforplasticswasintroducedin1988bytheplasticsindustrythroughtheSocietyofthePlasticsIndustry.[73]Becausemunicipalrecyclingprogramstraditionallyhavetargetedpackaging—primarilybottlesandcontainers—theresincodingsystemofferedameansofidentifyingtheresincontentofbottlesandcontainerscommonlyfoundintheresidentialwastestream.[74] Plasticproductsareprintedwithnumbers1–7dependingonthetypeofresin.Type1(polyethyleneterephthalate)iscommonlyfoundinsoftdrinkandwaterbottles.Type2(high-densitypolyethylene)isfoundinmosthardplasticssuchasmilkjugs,laundrydetergentbottles,andsomedishware.Type3(polyvinylchloride)includesitemssuchasshampoobottles,showercurtains,hulahoops,creditcards,wirejacketing,medicalequipment,siding,andpiping.Type4(low-densitypolyethylene)isfoundinshoppingbags,squeezablebottles,totebags,clothing,furniture,andcarpet.Type5ispolypropyleneandmakesupsyrupbottles,straws,Tupperware,andsomeautomotiveparts.Type6ispolystyreneandmakesupmeattrays,eggcartons,clamshellcontainers,andcompactdisccases.Type7includesallotherplasticssuchasbulletproofmaterials,3-and5-gallonwaterbottles,cellphoneandtabletframes,safetygogglesandsunglasses.[75]Havingarecyclingcodeorthechasingarrowslogoonamaterialisnotanautomaticindicatorthatamaterialisrecyclablebutratheranexplanationofwhatthematerialis.Types1and2arethemostcommonlyrecycled. Cost–benefitanalysis[edit] Thisarticlemaybeconfusingoruncleartoreaders.Pleasehelpclarifythearticle.Theremightbeadiscussionaboutthisonthetalkpage.(March2019)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Environmentaleffectsofrecycling[76] Material Energysavingsvs.newproduction Airpollutionsavingsvs.newproduction Aluminium 95%[5][20] 95%[5][77] Cardboard 24%  — Glass 5–30% 20% Paper 40%[20] 73%[78] Plastics 70%[20]  — Steel 60%[9]  — Inadditiontoenvironmentalimpact,thereisdebateoverwhetherrecyclingiseconomicallyefficient.AccordingtoaNaturalResourcesDefenseCouncilstudy,wastecollectionandlandfilldisposalcreateslessthanonejobper1,000tonsofwastematerialmanaged;incontrast,thecollection,processing,andmanufacturingofrecycledmaterialscreates6–13ormorejobsper1,000tons.[79]AccordingtotheU.S.RecyclingEconomicInformationalStudy,thereareover50,000recyclingestablishmentsthathavecreatedoveramillionjobsintheUS.[80]TheNationalWaste&RecyclingAssociation(NWRA)reportedinMay2015thatrecyclingandwastemadea$6.7billioneconomicimpactinOhio,U.S.,andemployed14,000people.[81]Economistswouldclassifythisextralaborusedasacostratherthanabenefitsincetheseworkerscouldhavebeenemployedelsewhere;thecosteffectivenessofcreatingtheseadditionaljobsremainsunclear. Sometimescitieshavefoundrecyclingsavesresourcescomparedtoothermethodsofwastedisposal.TwoyearsafterNewYorkCitydeclaredthatimplementingrecyclingprogramswouldbe"adrainonthecity",NewYorkCityleadersrealizedthatanefficientrecyclingsystemcouldsavethecityover$20million.[82]Municipalitiesoftenseefiscalbenefitsfromimplementingrecyclingprograms,largelyduetothereducedlandfillcosts.[83]AstudyconductedbytheTechnicalUniversityofDenmarkaccordingtotheEconomistfoundthatin83percentofcases,recyclingisthemostefficientmethodtodisposeofhouseholdwaste.[9][20]However,a2004assessmentbytheDanishEnvironmentalAssessmentInstituteconcludedthatincinerationwasthemosteffectivemethodfordisposingofdrinkcontainers,evenaluminiumones.[84] Fiscalefficiencyisseparatefromeconomicefficiency.Economicanalysisofrecyclingdoesnotincludewhateconomistscallexternalities:unpricedcostsandbenefitsthataccruetoindividualsoutsideofprivatetransactions.Examplesincludelessairpollutionandgreenhousegasesfromincinerationandlesswasteleachingfromlandfills.Withoutmechanismssuchastaxesorsubsidies,businessesandconsumersfollowingtheirprivatebenefitwouldignoreexternalitiesdespitethecostsimposedonsociety.Iflandfillsandincineratorpollutionisinadequatelyregulated,thesemethodsofwastedisposalappearcheaperthantheyreallyare,becausepartoftheircostisthepollutionimposedonpeoplenearby.Thus,advocateshavepushedforlegislationtoincreasedemandforrecycledmaterials.[5]TheUnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)hasconcludedinfavorofrecycling,sayingthatrecyclingeffortsreducedthecountry'scarbonemissionsbyanet49millionmetrictonnesin2005.[9]IntheUnitedKingdom,theWasteandResourcesActionProgrammestatedthatGreatBritain'srecyclingeffortsreduceCO2emissionsby10–15milliontonnesayear.[9]Thequestionforeconomicefficiencyiswhetherthisreductionisworththeextracostofrecyclingandthusmakestheartificialdemandcreatesbylegislationworthwhile. Wreckedautomobilesgatheredforsmelting Certainrequirementsmustbemetforrecyclingtobeeconomicallyfeasibleandenvironmentallyeffective.Theseincludeanadequatesourceofrecyclates,asystemtoextractthoserecyclatesfromthewastestream,anearbyfactorycapableofreprocessingtherecyclates,andapotentialdemandfortherecycledproducts.Theselasttworequirementsareoftenoverlooked—withoutbothanindustrialmarketforproductionusingthecollectedmaterialsandaconsumermarketforthemanufacturedgoods,recyclingisincompleteandinfactonly"collection".[5] Free-marketeconomistJulianSimonremarked"Therearethreewayssocietycanorganizewastedisposal:(a)commanding,(b)guidingbytaxandsubsidy,and(c)leavingittotheindividualandthemarket".Theseprinciplesappeartodivideeconomicthinkerstoday.[85] FrankAckermanfavoursahighlevelofgovernmentinterventiontoproviderecyclingservices.Hebelievesthatrecycling'sbenefitcannotbeeffectivelyquantifiedbytraditionallaissez-faireeconomics.AllenHershkowitzsupportsintervention,sayingthatitisapublicserviceequaltoeducationandpolicing.Hearguesthatmanufacturersshouldshouldermoreoftheburdenofwastedisposal.[85] PaulCalcottandMargaretWallsadvocatethesecondoption.Adepositrefundschemeandasmallrefusechargewouldencouragerecyclingbutnotattheexpenseofillegaldumping.ThomasC.Kinnamanconcludesthatalandfilltaxwouldforceconsumers,companiesandcouncilstorecyclemore.[85] Mostfree-marketthinkersdetestsubsidyandintervention,arguingthattheywasteresources.Thegeneralargumentisthatifcitieschargethefullcostofgarbagecollection,privatecompaniescanprofitablyrecycleanymaterialsforwhichthebenefitofrecyclingexceedsthecost(e.g.aluminum[86])anddonotrecycleothermaterialsforwhichthebenefitislessthanthecost(e.g.glass[87]).Cities,ontheotherhand,oftenrecycleevenwhentheynotonlydonotreceiveenoughforthepaperorplastictopayforitscollection,butmustactuallypayprivaterecyclingcompaniestotakeitoffoftheirhands.[86]TerryAndersonandDonaldLealthinkthatallrecyclingprogrammesshouldbeprivatelyoperated,andthereforewouldonlyoperateifthemoneysavedbyrecyclingexceedsitscosts.DanielK.Benjaminarguesthatitwastespeople'sresourcesandlowersthewealthofapopulation.[85]Henotesthatrecyclingcancostacitymorethantwiceasmuchaslandfills,thatintheUnitedStateslandfillsaresoheavilyregulatedthattheirpollutioneffectsarenegligible,andthattherecyclingprocessalsogeneratespollutionandusesenergy,whichmayormaynotbelessthanfromvirginproduction.[88] Tradeinrecyclates[edit] Certaincountriestradeinunprocessedrecyclates.Somehavecomplainedthattheultimatefateofrecyclatessoldtoanothercountryisunknownandtheymayendupinlandfillsinsteadofbeingreprocessed.Accordingtoonereport,inAmerica,50–80percentofcomputersdestinedforrecyclingareactuallynotrecycled.[89][90]Therearereportsofillegal-wasteimportstoChinabeingdismantledandrecycledsolelyformonetarygain,withoutconsiderationforworkers'healthorenvironmentaldamage.AlthoughtheChinesegovernmenthasbannedthesepractices,ithasnotbeenabletoeradicatethem.[91]In2008,thepricesofrecyclablewasteplummetedbeforereboundingin2009.Cardboardaveragedabout£53/tonnefrom2004to2008,droppedto£19/tonne,andthenwentupto£59/tonneinMay2009.PETplasticaveragedabout£156/tonne,droppedto£75/tonneandthenmovedupto£195/tonneinMay2009.[92] Certainregionshavedifficultyusingorexportingasmuchofamaterialastheyrecycle.Thisproblemismostprevalentwithglass:bothBritainandtheU.S.importlargequantitiesofwinebottledingreenglass.Thoughmuchofthisglassissenttoberecycled,outsidetheAmericanMidwestthereisnotenoughwineproductiontouseallofthereprocessedmaterial.Theextramustbedowncycledintobuildingmaterialsorre-insertedintotheregularwastestream.[5][9] Similarly,thenorthwesternUnitedStateshasdifficultyfindingmarketsforrecyclednewspaper,giventhelargenumberofpulpmillsintheregionaswellastheproximitytoAsianmarkets.InotherareasoftheU.S.,however,demandforusednewsprinthasseenwidefluctuation.[5] InsomeU.S.states,aprogramcalledRecycleBankpayspeopletorecycle,receivingmoneyfromlocalmunicipalitiesforthereductioninlandfillspacethatmustbepurchased.Itusesasinglestreamprocessinwhichallmaterialisautomaticallysorted.[93] Criticismsandresponses[edit] Thisarticlemaybeconfusingoruncleartoreaders.Pleasehelpclarifythearticle.Theremightbeadiscussionaboutthisonthetalkpage.(March2019)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Critics[who?]disputetheneteconomicandenvironmentalbenefitsofrecyclingoveritscosts,andsuggestthatproponentsofrecyclingoftenmakemattersworseandsufferfromconfirmationbias.Specifically,criticsarguethatthecostsandenergyusedincollectionandtransportationdetractfrom(andoutweigh)thecostsandenergysavedintheproductionprocess;alsothatthejobsproducedbytherecyclingindustrycanbeapoortradeforthejobslostinlogging,mining,andotherindustriesassociatedwithproduction;andthatmaterialssuchaspaperpulpcanonlyberecycledafewtimesbeforematerialdegradationpreventsfurtherrecycling.[94] Muchofthedifficultyinherentinrecyclingcomesfromthefactthatmostproductsarenotdesignedwithrecyclinginmind.Theconceptofsustainabledesignaimstosolvethisproblem,andwaslaidoutinthebookCradletoCradle:RemakingtheWayWeMakeThingsbyarchitectWilliamMcDonoughandchemistMichaelBraungart.[95]Theysuggestthateveryproduct(andallpackagingitrequires)shouldhaveacomplete"closed-loop"cyclemappedoutforeachcomponent—awayinwhicheverycomponenteitherreturnstothenaturalecosystemthroughbiodegradationorisrecycledindefinitely.[9][96] Completerecyclingisimpossiblefromapracticalstandpoint.Insummary,substitutionandrecyclingstrategiesonlydelaythedepletionofnon-renewablestocksandthereforemaybuytimeinthetransitiontotrueorstrongsustainability,whichultimatelyisonlyguaranteedinaneconomybasedonrenewableresources.[97]: 21 — M. H.Huesemann,2003 Whilerecyclingdivertswastefromenteringdirectlyintolandfillsites,currentrecyclingmissesthedispersivecomponents.Thesecriticsbelievethatcompleterecyclingisimpracticableashighlydispersedwastesbecomesodilutedthattheenergyneededfortheirrecoverybecomesincreasinglyexcessive. Aswithenvironmentaleconomics,caremustbetakentoensureacompleteviewofthecostsandbenefitsinvolved.Forexample,paperboardpackagingforfoodproductsismoreeasilyrecycledthanmostplastic,butisheaviertoshipandmayresultinmorewastefromspoilage.[98] Energyandmaterialflows[edit] Balesofcrushedsteelreadyfortransporttothesmelter Theamountofenergysavedthroughrecyclingdependsuponthematerialbeingrecycledandthetypeofenergyaccountingthatisused.Correctaccountingforthissavedenergycanbeaccomplishedwithlife-cycleanalysisusingrealenergyvalues,andinaddition,exergy,whichisameasureofhowmuchusefulenergycanbeused.Ingeneral,ittakesfarlessenergytoproduceaunitmassofrecycledmaterialsthanitdoestomakethesamemassofvirginmaterials.[99][100][101] Somescholarsuseemergy(spelledwithanm)analysis,forexample,budgetsfortheamountofenergyofonekind(exergy)thatisrequiredtomakeortransformthingsintoanotherkindofproductorservice.Emergycalculationstakeintoaccounteconomicsthatcanalterpurephysics-basedresults.Usingemergylife-cycleanalysisresearchershaveconcludedthatmaterialswithlargerefiningcostshavethegreatestpotentialforhighrecyclebenefits.Moreover,thehighestemergyefficiencyaccruesfromsystemsgearedtowardmaterialrecycling,wherematerialsareengineeredtorecyclebackintotheiroriginalformandpurpose,followedbyadaptivereusesystemswherethematerialsarerecycledintoadifferentkindofproduct,andthenby-productreusesystemswherepartsoftheproductsareusedtomakeanentirelydifferentproduct.[102] TheEnergyInformationAdministration(EIA)statesonitswebsitethat"apapermilluses40percentlessenergytomakepaperfromrecycledpaperthanitdoestomakepaperfromfreshlumber."[103]Somecriticsarguethatittakesmoreenergytoproducerecycledproductsthanitdoestodisposeofthemintraditionallandfillmethods,sincethecurbsidecollectionofrecyclablesoftenrequiresasecondwastetruck.However,recyclingproponentspointoutthatasecondtimberorloggingtruckiseliminatedwhenpaperiscollectedforrecycling,sothenetenergyconsumptionisthesame.Anemergylife-cycleanalysisonrecyclingrevealedthatflyash,aluminum,recycledconcreteaggregate,recycledplastic,andsteelyieldhigherefficiencyratios,whereastherecyclingoflumbergeneratesthelowestrecyclebenefitratio.Hence,thespecificnatureoftherecyclingprocess,themethodsusedtoanalysetheprocess,andtheproductsinvolvedaffecttheenergysavingsbudgets.[102] Itisdifficulttodeterminetheamountofenergyconsumedorproducedinwastedisposalprocessesinbroaderecologicalterms,wherecausalrelationsdissipateintocomplexnetworksofmaterialandenergyflow.Forexample,"citiesdonotfollowallthestrategiesofecosystemdevelopment.Biogeochemicalpathsbecomefairlystraightrelativetowildecosystems,withreducedrecycling,resultinginlargeflowsofwasteandlowtotalenergyefficiencies.Bycontrast,inwildecosystems,onepopulation'swastesareanotherpopulation'sresources,andsuccessionresultsinefficientexploitationofavailableresources.However,evenmodernizedcitiesmaystillbeintheearlieststagesofasuccessionthatmaytakecenturiesormillenniatocomplete."[104]: 720 Howmuchenergyisusedinrecyclingalsodependsonthetypeofmaterialbeingrecycledandtheprocessusedtodoso.Aluminiumisgenerallyagreedtousefarlessenergywhenrecycledratherthanbeingproducedfromscratch.TheEPAstatesthat"recyclingaluminumcans,forexample,saves95percentoftheenergyrequiredtomakethesameamountofaluminumfromitsvirginsource,bauxite."[105][106]In2009,morethanhalfofallaluminiumcansproducedcamefromrecycledaluminium.[107]Similarly,ithasbeenestimatedthatnewsteelproducedwithrecycledcansreducesgreenhousegasemissionsby75%.[108] Everyyear,millionsoftonsofmaterialsarebeingexploitedfromtheearth'scrust,andprocessedintoconsumerandcapitalgoods.Afterdecadestocenturies,mostofthesematerialsare"lost".Withtheexceptionofsomepiecesofartorreligiousrelics,theyarenolongerengagedintheconsumptionprocess.Wherearethey?Recyclingisonlyanintermediatesolutionforsuchmaterials,althoughitdoesprolongtheresidencetimeintheanthroposphere.Forthermodynamicreasons,however,recyclingcannotpreventthefinalneedforanultimatesink.[109]: 1 — P. H.Brunner EconomistStevenLandsburghassuggestedthatthesolebenefitofreducinglandfillspaceistrumpedbytheenergyneededandresultingpollutionfromtherecyclingprocess.[110]Others,however,havecalculatedthroughlife-cycleassessmentthatproducingrecycledpaperuseslessenergyandwaterthanharvesting,pulping,processing,andtransportingvirgintrees.[111]Whenlessrecycledpaperisused,additionalenergyisneededtocreateandmaintainfarmedforestsuntiltheseforestsareasself-sustainableasvirginforests. Otherstudieshaveshownthatrecyclinginitselfisinefficienttoperformthe"decoupling"ofeconomicdevelopmentfromthedepletionofnon-renewablerawmaterialsthatisnecessaryforsustainabledevelopment.[112]Theinternationaltransportationorrecyclematerialflowsthrough"... differenttradenetworksofthethreecountriesresultindifferentflows,decayrates,andpotentialrecyclingreturns".[113]: 1 Asglobalconsumptionofanaturalresourcesgrows,theirdepletionisinevitable.Thebestrecyclingcandoistodelay;completeclosureofmaterialloopstoachieve100percentrecyclingofnonrenewablesisimpossibleasmicro-tracematerialsdissipateintotheenvironmentcausingseveredamagetotheplanet'secosystems.[114][115][116]Historically,thiswasidentifiedasthemetabolicriftbyKarlMarx,whoidentifiedtheunequalexchangeratebetweenenergyandnutrientsflowingfromruralareastofeedurbancitiesthatcreateeffluentwastesdegradingtheplanet'secologicalcapital,suchaslossinsoilnutrientproduction.[117][118]EnergyconservationalsoleadstowhatisknownasJevon'sparadox,whereimprovementsinenergyefficiencylowersthecostofproductionandleadstoareboundeffectwhereratesofconsumptionandeconomicgrowthincreases.[116][119] ThisshopinNewYorkonlysellsitemsrecycledfromdemolishedbuildings. Costs[edit] Theamountofmoneyactuallysavedthroughrecyclingdependsontheefficiencyoftherecyclingprogramusedtodoit.TheInstituteforLocalSelf-Reliancearguesthatthecostofrecyclingdependsonvariousfactors,suchaslandfillfeesandtheamountofdisposalthatthecommunityrecycles.Itstatesthatcommunitiesbegintosavemoneywhentheytreatrecyclingasareplacementfortheirtraditionalwastesystemratherthananadd-ontoitandby"redesigningtheircollectionschedulesand/ortrucks".[120] Insomecases,thecostofrecyclablematerialsalsoexceedsthecostofrawmaterials.Virginplasticresincosts40percentlessthanrecycledresin.[121]Additionally,aUnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)studythattrackedthepriceofclearglassfrom15Julyto2August1991,foundthattheaveragecostpertonrangedfrom$40to$60[122]whileaUSGSreportshowsthatthecostpertonofrawsilicasandfromyears1993to1997fellbetween$17.33and$18.10.[123] Comparingthemarketcostofrecyclablematerialwiththecostofnewrawmaterialsignoreseconomicexternalities—thecoststhatarecurrentlynotcountedbythemarket.Creatinganewpieceofplastic,forinstance,maycausemorepollutionandbelesssustainablethanrecyclingasimilarpieceofplastic,butthesefactorsarenotcountedinmarketcost.Alifecycleassessmentcanbeusedtodeterminethelevelsofexternalitiesanddecidewhethertherecyclingmaybeworthwhiledespiteunfavorablemarketcosts.Alternatively,legalmeans(suchasacarbontax)canbeusedtobringexternalitiesintothemarket,sothatthemarketcostofthematerialbecomesclosetothetruecost. Workingconditions[edit] SomepeopleinBrazilearntheirlivingbycollectingandsortinggarbageandsellingthemforrecycling. Therecyclingofwasteelectricalandelectronicequipmentcancreateasignificantamountofpollution.ThisproblemisspecificallyoccurrentinIndiaandChina.Informalrecyclinginanundergroundeconomyofthesecountrieshasgeneratedanenvironmentalandhealthdisaster.Highlevelsoflead(Pb),polybrominateddiphenylethers(PBDEs),polychlorinateddioxinsandfurans,aswellaspolybrominateddioxinsandfurans(PCDD/FsandPBDD/Fs),concentratedintheair,bottomash,dust,soil,water,andsedimentsinareassurroundingrecyclingsites.[124]Thesematerialscanmakeworksitesharmfultotheworkersthemselvesandthesurroundingenvironment. Environmentalimpact[edit] EconomistStevenLandsburg,authorofapaperentitled"WhyIAmNotanEnvironmentalist",[125]claimedthatpaperrecyclingactuallyreducestreepopulations.Hearguesthatbecausepapercompanieshaveincentivestoreplenishtheirforests,largedemandsforpaperleadtolargeforestswhilereduceddemandforpaperleadstofewer"farmed"forests.[126] AmetalscrapworkerispicturedburninginsulatedcopperwiresforcopperrecoveryatAgbogbloshie,Ghana. Whenforestingcompaniescutdowntrees,moreareplantedintheirplace;however,such"farmed"forestsareinferiortonaturalforestsinseveralways.Farmedforestsarenotabletofixthesoilasquicklyasnaturalforests.Thiscancausewidespreadsoilerosionandoftenrequiringlargeamountsoffertilizertomaintainthesoil,whilecontaininglittletreeandwild-lifebiodiversitycomparedtovirginforests.[127]Also,thenewtreesplantedarenotasbigasthetreesthatwerecutdown,andtheargumentthattherewouldbe"moretrees"isnotcompellingtoforestryadvocateswhentheyarecountingsaplings. Inparticular,woodfromtropicalrainforestsisrarelyharvestedforpaperbecauseoftheirheterogeneity.[128]AccordingtotheUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChangesecretariat,theoverwhelmingdirectcauseofdeforestationissubsistencefarming(48%ofdeforestation)andcommercialagriculture(32%),whichislinkedtofood,notpaperproduction.[129] Othernon-conventionalmethodsofmaterialrecycling,likeWaste-to-Energy(WTE)systems,havegarneredincreasedattentionintherecentpastduetothepolarizingnatureoftheiremissions.Whileviewedasasustainablemethodofcapturingenergyfrommaterialwastefeedstocksbymany,othershavecitednumerousexplanationsforwhythetechnologyhasnotbeenscaledglobally.[130] Possibleincomelossandsocialcosts[edit] Insomecountries,recyclingisperformedbytheentrepreneurialpoorsuchasthekarungguni,zabbaleen,therag-and-boneman,wastepicker,andjunkman.Withthecreationoflargerecyclingorganizationsthatmaybeprofitable,eitherbylaworeconomiesofscale,[131][132]thepooraremorelikelytobedrivenoutoftherecyclingandtheremanufacturingjobmarket.Tocompensateforthislossofincome,asocietymayneedtocreateadditionalformsofsocietalprogramstohelpsupportthepoor.[133]Liketheparableofthebrokenwindow,thereisanetlosstothepoorandpossiblythewholeofasocietytomakerecyclingartificiallyprofitable,e.g.throughthelaw.However,inBrazilandArgentina,wastepickers/informalrecyclersworkalongsidetheauthorities,infullyorsemi-fundedcooperatives,allowinginformalrecyclingtobelegitimizedasapaidpublicsectorjob.[134] Becausethesocialsupportofacountryislikelytobelessthanthelossofincometothepoorundertakingrecycling,thereisagreaterchanceforthepoortocomeinconflictwiththelargerecyclingorganizations.[135][136]Thismeansfewerpeoplecandecideifcertainwasteismoreeconomicallyreusableinitscurrentformratherthanbeingreprocessed.Contrastedtotherecyclingpoor,theefficiencyoftheirrecyclingmayactuallybehigherforsomematerialsbecauseindividualshavegreatercontroloverwhatisconsidered"waste".[133] Onelabor-intensiveunderusedwasteiselectronicandcomputerwaste.Becausethiswastemaystillbefunctionalandwantedmostlybythoseonlowerincomes,whomayselloruseitatagreaterefficiencythanlargerecyclers. Somerecyclingadvocatesbelievethatlaissez-faireindividual-basedrecyclingdoesnotcoverallofsociety'srecyclingneeds.Thus,itdoesnotnegatetheneedforanorganizedrecyclingprogram.[133]Localgovernmentcanconsidertheactivitiesoftherecyclingpoorascontributingtotheruiningofproperty. Publicparticipationrates[edit] Single-streamrecyclingincreasespublicparticipationrates,butrequiresadditionalsorting. BetterrecyclingisapriorityintheEuropeanUnion,especiallyinCentralandEasternEuropeamongrespondentsofthe2020-21EuropeanInvestmentBankClimateSurvey. Changesthathavebeendemonstratedtoincreaserecyclingratesinclude: Single-streamrecycling Payasyouthrowfeesfortrash InastudydonebysocialpsychologistShawnBurn,[137]itwasfoundthatpersonalcontactwithindividualswithinaneighborhoodisthemosteffectivewaytoincreaserecyclingwithinacommunity.Inherstudy,shehad10blockleaderstalktotheirneighborsandpersuadethemtorecycle.Acomparisongroupwassentflierspromotingrecycling.Itwasfoundthattheneighborsthatwerepersonallycontactedbytheirblockleadersrecycledmuchmorethanthegroupwithoutpersonalcontact.Asaresultofthisstudy,ShawnBurnbelievesthatpersonalcontactwithinasmallgroupofpeopleisanimportantfactorinencouragingrecycling.AnotherstudydonebyStuartOskamp[138]examinestheeffectofneighborsandfriendsonrecycling.Itwasfoundinhisstudiesthatpeoplewhohadfriendsandneighborsthatrecycledweremuchmorelikelytoalsorecyclethanthosewhodidn'thavefriendsandneighborsthatrecycled. Manyschoolshavecreatedrecyclingawarenessclubsinordertogiveyoungstudentsaninsightonrecycling.Theseschoolsbelievethattheclubsactuallyencouragestudentstonotonlyrecycleatschoolbutathomeaswell. Recyclingofmetalsvariesextremelybytype.Titaniumandleadhaveanextremelyhighrecyclingratesofover90%.Copperandcobalthavehighratesofrecyclingaround75%.Onlyabouthalfofaluminumisrecycled.Mostoftheremainingmetalshaverecyclingratesofbelow35%,while34typesofmetalshaverecyclingratesofunder1%.[139] "Between1960and2000,theworldproductionofplasticresinsincreased25timesitsoriginalamount,whilerecoveryofthematerialremainedbelow5percent."[140]: 131 Manystudieshaveaddressedrecyclingbehaviourandstrategiestoencouragecommunityinvolvementinrecyclingprograms.Ithasbeenargued[141]thatrecyclingbehaviorisnotnaturalbecauseitrequiresafocusandappreciationforlong-termplanning,whereashumanshaveevolvedtobesensitivetoshort-termsurvivalgoals;andthattoovercomethisinnatepredisposition,thebestsolutionwouldbetousesocialpressuretocompelparticipationinrecyclingprograms.However,recentstudieshaveconcludedthatsocialpressuredoesnotworkinthiscontext.[142]Onereasonforthisisthatsocialpressurefunctionswellinsmallgroupsizesof50to150individuals(commontonomadichunter–gathererpeoples)butnotincommunitiesnumberinginthemillions,asweseetoday.Anotherreasonisthatindividualrecyclingdoesnottakeplaceinthepublicview. Followingtheincreasingpopularityofrecyclingcollectionbeingsenttothesamelandfillsastrash,somepeoplekeptonputtingrecyclablesontherecyclablesbin.[143] Furtherinformation:Recyclingratesbycountry Recyclinginart[edit] Uniseafish–madeofrecycledaluminumbeercans Artobjectsaremoreandmoreoftenmadefromrecycledmaterial. Seealso[edit] 2000scommoditiesboom E-Cycling Greening Indexofrecyclingarticles Listofelementsfacingshortage Listofwastemanagementacronyms Nutrientcycle Opticalsorting Recyclingsymbol Resourcerecovery Refurbishment(electronics) USPSPostOfficeBoxLobbyRecyclingprogram Portals:EcologyEnvironment References[edit] ^Villalba,G;Segarra,M;Fernández,A.I;Chimenos,J.M;Espiell,F(December2002)."Aproposalforquantifyingtherecyclabilityofmaterials".Resources,ConservationandRecycling.37(1):39–53.doi:10.1016/S0921-3449(02)00056-3. ^abcdeLienig,Jens;Bruemmer,Hans(2017)."RecyclingRequirementsandDesignforEnvironmentalCompliance".FundamentalsofElectronicSystemsDesign.pp. 193–218.doi:10.1007/978-3-319-55840-0_7.ISBN 978-3-319-55839-4. ^EuropeanCommission(2014)."EUWasteLegislation".Archivedfromtheoriginalon12March2014. 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Furtherreading[edit] Ackerman,F.(1997).WhyDoWeRecycle?:Markets,Values,andPublicPolicy.IslandPress.ISBN 1-55963-504-5,ISBN 978-1-55963-504-2 Ayres,R.U.(1994)."IndustrialMetabolism:TheoryandPolicy",In:Allenby,B.R.,andD.J.Richards,TheGreeningofIndustrialEcosystems.NationalAcademyPress,Washington,DC,pp. 23–37. Braungart,M.,McDonough,W.(2002).CradletoCradle:RemakingtheWayWeMakeThings.NorthPointPress,ISBN 0-86547-587-3. Huesemann,M.H.,Huesemann,J.A.(2011).Technofix:WhyTechnologyWon'tSaveUsortheEnvironment,"Challenge#3:CompleteRecyclingofNon-RenewableMaterialsandWastes",NewSocietyPublishers,GabriolaIsland,BritishColumbia,Canada,ISBN 0-86571-704-4,pp. 135–137. Lienig,Jens;Bruemmer,Hans(2017)."RecyclingRequirementsandDesignforEnvironmentalCompliance".FundamentalsofElectronicSystemsDesign.pp. 193–218.doi:10.1007/978-3-319-55840-0_7.ISBN 978-3-319-55839-4. Minter,Adam(2015).JunkyardPlanet:TravelsintheBillion-DollarTrashTrade.BloomsburyPress.ISBN 978-1608197934. Porter,R.C.(2002).TheEconomicsofWaste.ResourcesfortheFuture.ISBN 1-891853-42-2,ISBN 978-1-891853-42-5 Sheffield,H.Sweden’srecyclingissorevolutionary,thecountryhasrunoutofrubbish(December2016),TheIndependent(UK) Tierney,J.(3October2015)."TheReignofRecycling".TheNewYorkTimes. Externallinks[edit] LookuprecyclinginWiktionary,thefreedictionary. WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoRecycling. LibraryresourcesaboutRecycling Resourcesinyourlibrary Resourcesinotherlibraries RecyclingatCurlie Relatedjournals[edit] Seealso:Category:Wastemanagementjournals EnvironmentandBehavior InternationalJournalofPhysicalDistribution&LogisticsManagement JournalofAppliedSocialPsychology JournalofEnvironmentalPsychology JournalofEnvironmentalSystems JournalofIndustrialEcology JournalofSocio-Economics JournalofUrbanEconomics PsychologyandMarketing Recycling:NorthAmerica'sRecyclingandCompostingJournal Resources,ConservationandRecycling WasteManagement&Research vteRecyclingMaterials Aluminium Asphalt Concrete Copper Cotton Energy Glass Gypsum Paper Plastic Refrigerant Scrap Timber Cookingoil Water Products Appliances Automotiveoil Batteries Bottles PETbottles Computers Drugs Fluorescentlamps Lumber Mobilephones Paint Ships Textiles Tires Vehicles Apparatus Bins Bluebags Blueboxes Codes Collection Materialsrecoveryfacility Wastesorting Countries Ratebycountry Australia Brazil Canada Ireland Israel Japan Malaysia TheNetherlands Switzerland Taiwan UnitedKingdom NorthernIreland UnitedStates Concepts Circulareconomy Dematerialization Downcycling Durablegood Eco-industrialpark Ecodesign Extendedproducerresponsibility Greeneconomy Industrialecology Industrialmetabolism Interchangeableparts Landrecycling Materialflowanalysis Precycling Productstewardship Recycling(ecological) Refill(scheme) Repairability Resourcerecovery Reusablepackaging Reuseofbottles Reuseofexcreta Repurposing Reuse Righttorepair Symbol(GreenDot) Upcycling Urbanlumberjacking Wastehierarchy Wasteminimisation Wastepicking Zerowaste Seealso Cogeneration Composting Containerdepositlegislation Dumpsterdiving Ethicalconsumerism Freeganism Reversevendingmachine Simpleliving Waste Waste-to-energy Wastecollection Wastemanagementlaw Wastemanagement Environmentportal Category bycountry bymaterial byproduct organizations Index Commons vteBiosolids,waste,andwastemanagementMajortypes Agriculturalwastewater Biodegradablewaste 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