ethics | Definition, History, Examples, Types, Philosophy, & Facts

ethics, also called moral philosophy, the discipline concerned with what is morally good and bad and morally right and wrong. The term is also applied to ... ethics TableofContents ethics Introduction&TopQuestionsTheoriginsofethicsMythicalaccountsIntroductionofmoralcodesProblemsofdivineoriginPrehumanethicsNonhumanbehaviourKinshipandreciprocityAnthropologyandethicsThehistoryofWesternethicsAncientcivilizationstotheendofthe19thcenturyTheancientMiddleEastandAsiaTheMiddleEastIndiaChinaAncientandClassicalGreeceAncientGreeceSocratesPlatoAristotleLaterGreekandRomanethicsTheStoicsTheEpicureansChristianethicsfromtheNewTestamenttotheScholasticsEthicsintheNewTestamentSt.AugustineSt.ThomasAquinasandtheScholasticsTheRenaissanceandtheReformationMachiavelliThefirstProtestantsTheBritishtraditionfromHobbestotheutilitariansHobbesEarlyintuitionists:Cudworth,More,andClarkeShaftesburyandthemoralsenseschoolButleronself-interestandconscienceTheclimaxofmoralsensetheory:HutchesonandHumeTheintuitionistresponse:PriceandReidUtilitarianismPaleyBenthamMillSidgwickTheContinentaltraditionfromSpinozatoNietzscheSpinozaLeibnizRousseauKantHegelMarxNietzscheWesternethicsfromthebeginningofthe20thcenturyMetaethicsMooreandthenaturalisticfallacyModernintuitionismEmotivismExistentialismUniversalprescriptivismLaterdevelopmentsinmetaethicsMoralrealismKantianconstructivism:amiddleground?Irrealistviews:projectivismandexpressivismEthicsandreasonsforactionNormativeethicsThedebateoverconsequentialismVarietiesofconsequentialismObjectionstoconsequentialismAnethicsofprimafaciedutiesRawls’stheoryofjusticeRightstheoriesNaturallawethicsVirtueethicsFeministethicsEthicalegoismAppliedethicsEqualityAnimalsEnvironmentalethicsWarandpeaceAbortion,euthanasia,andthevalueofhumanlifeBioethics FastFacts 2-MinSummary TopQuestions Whatisethics? Howisethicsdifferentfrommorality? Whydoesethicsmatter? Facts&RelatedContent Media Images More AdditionalReading MoreArticlesOnThisTopic Contributors ArticleHistory Home Philosophy&Religion EthicalIssues ethics philosophy Actions Cite verifiedCite Whileeveryefforthasbeenmadetofollowcitationstylerules,theremaybesomediscrepancies. Pleaserefertotheappropriatestylemanualorothersourcesifyouhaveanyquestions. SelectCitationStyle MLA APA ChicagoManualofStyle CopyCitation Share Share Sharetosocialmedia Facebook Twitter URL https://www.britannica.com/topic/ethics-philosophy GiveFeedback ExternalWebsites Feedback Corrections?Updates?Omissions?Letusknowifyouhavesuggestionstoimprovethisarticle(requireslogin). FeedbackType Selectatype(Required) FactualCorrection Spelling/GrammarCorrection LinkCorrection AdditionalInformation Other YourFeedback SubmitFeedback Thankyouforyourfeedback Oureditorswillreviewwhatyou’vesubmittedanddeterminewhethertorevisethearticle. JoinBritannica'sPublishingPartnerProgramandourcommunityofexpertstogainaglobalaudienceforyourwork! ExternalWebsites InternetEncyclopediaofPhilosophy-Ethics CornellLawSchool-LegalInformationInstitute-Ethics PhilosophyBasics-Ethics BritannicaWebsites ArticlesfromBritannicaEncyclopediasforelementaryandhighschoolstudents. ethicsandmorality-StudentEncyclopedia(Ages11andup) Print print Print Pleaseselectwhichsectionsyouwouldliketoprint: TableOfContents Cite verifiedCite Whileeveryefforthasbeenmadetofollowcitationstylerules,theremaybesomediscrepancies. Pleaserefertotheappropriatestylemanualorothersourcesifyouhaveanyquestions. SelectCitationStyle MLA APA ChicagoManualofStyle CopyCitation Share Share Sharetosocialmedia Facebook Twitter URL https://www.britannica.com/topic/ethics-philosophy Feedback ExternalWebsites Feedback Corrections?Updates?Omissions?Letusknowifyouhavesuggestionstoimprovethisarticle(requireslogin). FeedbackType Selectatype(Required) FactualCorrection Spelling/GrammarCorrection LinkCorrection AdditionalInformation Other YourFeedback SubmitFeedback Thankyouforyourfeedback Oureditorswillreviewwhatyou’vesubmittedanddeterminewhethertorevisethearticle. JoinBritannica'sPublishingPartnerProgramandourcommunityofexpertstogainaglobalaudienceforyourwork! ExternalWebsites InternetEncyclopediaofPhilosophy-Ethics CornellLawSchool-LegalInformationInstitute-Ethics PhilosophyBasics-Ethics BritannicaWebsites ArticlesfromBritannicaEncyclopediasforelementaryandhighschoolstudents. ethicsandmorality-StudentEncyclopedia(Ages11andup) Alternatetitles:moralphilosophy By PeterSinger • EditHistory TableofContents CodeofHammurabi Seeallmedia KeyPeople: Socrates Aristotle Plato St.Augustine ImmanuelKant ...(Showmore) RelatedTopics: Trolleyproblem legalethics biocentrism ethicalrelativism optimism ...(Showmore) Seeallrelatedcontent→ Shortcuts Problemswiththedivineoriginofethics Ismoralitysubjectiveorobjective? AncientMiddleEast,India,andChina AncientGreece:Socrates,Plato,andAristotle Applyingethicaltheoriestopracticalproblems TopQuestionsWhatisethics?Thetermethicsmayrefertothephilosophicalstudyoftheconceptsofmoralrightandwrongandmoralgoodandbad,toanyphilosophicaltheoryofwhatismorallyrightandwrongormorallygoodandbad,andtoanysystemorcodeofmoralrules,principles,orvalues.Thelastmaybeassociatedwithparticularreligions,cultures,professions,orvirtuallyanyothergroupthatisatleastpartlycharacterizedbyitsmoraloutlook.Howisethicsdifferentfrommorality?Traditionally,ethicsreferredtothephilosophicalstudyofmorality,thelatter beingamoreorlesssystematicsetofbeliefs,usuallyheldincommonbyagroup,abouthowpeopleshouldlive.Ethicsalsoreferredtoparticularphilosophicaltheoriesofmorality.Laterthetermwasappliedtoparticular(andnarrower)moralcodesorvaluesystems.Ethicsandmoralityarenowusedalmostinterchangeablyinmanycontexts,butthenameofthephilosophicalstudyremainsethics.Whydoesethicsmatter?Ethicsmattersbecause(1)itispartofhowmanygroupsdefinethemselvesandthuspartoftheidentityoftheirindividualmembers,(2)other-regardingvaluesinmostethicalsystemsbothreflectandfosterclosehumanrelationshipsandmutualrespectandtrust,and(3)itcouldbe“rational”foraself-interestedpersontobemoral,becausehisorherself-interestisarguablybestservedinthelongrunbyreciprocatingthemoralbehaviourofothers.Isethicsasocialscience?No.Understoodasequivalenttomorality,ethicscouldbestudiedasasocial-psychologicalorhistoricalphenomenon,butinthatcaseitwouldbeanobjectofsocial-scientificstudy,notasocialscienceinitself.Understoodasthephilosophicalstudyofmoralconcepts,ethicsisabranchofphilosophy,notofsocialscience.Summary Readabriefsummaryofthistopic ethics,alsocalledmoralphilosophy,thedisciplineconcernedwithwhatismorallygoodandbadandmorallyrightandwrong.Thetermisalsoappliedtoanysystemortheoryofmoralvaluesorprinciples.Howshouldwelive?Shallweaimathappinessoratknowledge,virtue,orthecreationofbeautifulobjects?Ifwechoosehappiness,willitbeourownorthehappinessofall?Andwhatofthemoreparticularquestionsthatfaceus:isitrighttobedishonestinagoodcause?Canwejustifylivinginopulencewhileelsewhereintheworldpeoplearestarving?Isgoingtowarjustifiedincaseswhereitislikelythatinnocentpeoplewillbekilled?Isitwrongtocloneahumanbeingortodestroyhumanembryosinmedicalresearch?Whatareourobligations,ifany,tothegenerationsofhumanswhowillcomeafterusandtothenonhumananimalswithwhomwesharetheplanet?Ethicsdealswithsuchquestionsatalllevels.Itssubjectconsistsofthefundamentalissuesofpracticaldecisionmaking,anditsmajorconcernsincludethenatureofultimatevalueandthestandardsbywhichhumanactionscanbejudgedrightorwrong.Thetermsethicsandmoralityarecloselyrelated.Itisnowcommontorefertoethicaljudgmentsortoethicalprincipleswhereitoncewouldhavebeenmoreaccuratetospeakofmoraljudgmentsormoralprinciples.Theseapplicationsareanextensionofthemeaningofethics.Inearlierusage,thetermreferrednottomoralityitselfbuttothefieldofstudy,orbranchofinquiry,thathasmoralityasitssubjectmatter.Inthissense,ethicsisequivalenttomoralphilosophy.Althoughethicshasalwaysbeenviewedasabranchofphilosophy,itsall-embracingpracticalnaturelinksitwithmanyotherareasofstudy,includinganthropology,biology,economics,history,politics,sociology,andtheology.Yet,ethicsremainsdistinctfromsuchdisciplinesbecauseitisnotamatteroffactualknowledgeinthewaythatthesciencesandotherbranchesofinquiryare.Rather,ithastodowithdeterminingthenatureofnormativetheoriesandapplyingthesesetsofprinciplestopracticalmoralproblems.Thisarticle,then,willdealwithethicsasafieldofphilosophy,especiallyasithasdevelopedintheWest.Forcoverageofreligiousconceptionsofethicsandtheethicalsystemsassociatedwithworldreligions,seeBuddhism;Christianity;Confucianism;Hinduism;Jainism;Judaism;Sikhism.TheoriginsofethicsMythicalaccountsIntroductionofmoralcodesWhendidethicsbeginandhowdiditoriginate?Ifonehasinmindethicsproper—i.e.,thesystematicstudyofwhatismorallyrightandwrong—itisclearthatethicscouldhavecomeintoexistenceonlywhenhumanbeingsstartedtoreflectonthebestwaytolive.Thisreflectivestageemergedlongafterhumansocietieshaddevelopedsomekindofmorality,usuallyintheformofcustomarystandardsofrightandwrongconduct.Theprocessofreflectiontendedtoarisefromsuchcustoms,evenifintheenditmayhavefoundthemwanting.Accordingly,ethicsbeganwiththeintroductionofthefirstmoralcodes.Virtuallyeveryhumansocietyhassomeformofmythtoexplaintheoriginofmorality.IntheLouvreinParisthereisablackBabyloniancolumnwithareliefshowingthesungodShamashpresentingthecodeoflawstoHammurabi(diedc.1750bce),knownastheCodeofHammurabi.TheHebrewBible(OldTestament)accountofGod’sgivingtheTenCommandmentstoMoses(flourished14th–13thcenturybce)onMountSinaimightbeconsideredanotherexample.InthedialogueProtagorasbyPlato(428/427–348/347bce),thereisanavowedlymythicalaccountofhowZeustookpityonthehaplesshumans,whowerephysicallynomatchfortheotherbeasts.Tomakeupforthesedeficiencies,Zeusgavehumansamoralsenseandthecapacityforlawandjustice,sothattheycouldliveinlargercommunitiesandcooperatewithoneanother.Thatmoralityshouldbeinvestedwithallthemysteryandpowerofdivineoriginisnotsurprising.Nothingelsecouldprovidesuchstrongreasonsforacceptingthemorallaw.Byattributingadivineorigintomorality,thepriesthoodbecameitsinterpreterandguardianandtherebysecuredforitselfapowerthatitwouldnotreadilyrelinquish.Thislinkbetweenmoralityandreligionhasbeensofirmlyforgedthatitisstillsometimesassertedthattherecanbenomoralitywithoutreligion.Accordingtothisview,ethicsisnotanindependentfieldofstudybutratherabranchoftheology(seemoraltheology).Thereissomedifficulty,alreadyknowntoPlato,withtheviewthatmoralitywascreatedbyadivinepower.InhisdialogueEuthyphro,Platoconsideredthesuggestionthatitisdivineapprovalthatmakesanactiongood.Platopointedoutthat,ifthiswerethecase,onecouldnotsaythatthegodsapproveofsuchactionsbecausetheyaregood.Whythendotheyapproveofthem?Istheirapprovalentirelyarbitrary?Platoconsideredthisimpossibleandsoheldthattheremustbesomestandardsofrightorwrongthatareindependentofthelikesanddislikesofthegods.ModernphilosophershavegenerallyacceptedPlato’sargument,becausethealternativeimpliesthatif,forexample,thegodshadhappenedtoapproveoftorturingchildrenandtodisapproveofhelpingone’sneighbours,thentorturewouldhavebeengoodandneighbourlinessbad. 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