Extremism - Wikipedia

Political extremism can be defined as those policies that violate or erode international human rights norms as found in the Universal Declaration of Human ... Extremism FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Possessingoradvocatingviewswhichareoutsidethemainstreamattitudesofsociety "Politicalfringe"redirectshere.Forotherpoliticalfringegroups,seePoliticalfringemovements. "Extremist"and"Extremists"redirecthere.Forotheruses,seeExtremist(disambiguation). PartofthePoliticsseriesPartypolitics Politicalspectrum Left-wing Far-leftCentre-left Centre Centre-leftRadicalcentreCentre-right Right-wing Centre-rightFar-right Platforms/Ideologies Anarchist Christiandemocratic Communist Conservative Democratic Environmentalist Fascist Fundamentalist Globalist Green Internationalist Liberal Libertarian Nationalist PirateParty Populist Progressive Regionalist Republican Socialdemocratic Socialist Syncretic Types Eliteparty Cartelparty Catch-allparty Entrepreneurialparty Massparty Rulingparty Oppositionparty Officialpartystatus Single-issueparty Organization Backbencher Caucus Caucuschair Floorleader Frontbencher Leadcandidate LeaderoftheOpposition Majorityleader Minorityleader Parliamentarygroup Parliamentaryleader Partychair Partyleader Partyspokesperson Secretary Shadowcabinet Whip Internalelections Leadershipelection Partyconference Primaryelection Partydiscipline Consciencevote Crossingthefloor Partydiscipline Partyline Party-linevote Partyswitching Partysystems One-party Dominant-partyTwo-partyMulti-party Non-partisan Coalitionsbetweenparties Coalitiongovernment Confidenceandsupply Grandcoalition Hungparliament Majoritygovernment Minoritygovernment Nationalunitygovernment Rotationgovernment Listsofpoliticalparties Rulingpartiesbycountry Politicalpartiesbyregion Politicalideologies Category:Bannedpoliticalparties  Politicsportalvte Extremismis"thequalityorstateofbeingextreme"or"theadvocacyofextrememeasuresorviews".[1] Thetermisprimarilyusedinapoliticalorreligioussense,torefertoanideologythatisconsidered(bythespeakerorbysomeimpliedsharedsocialconsensus)tobefaroutsidethemainstreamattitudesofsociety.[2]Itcanalsobeusedinaneconomiccontext.Thetermmaybeusedpejorativelybyopposinggroups,butisalsousedinacademicandjournalisticcircles,inapurelydescriptiveandnon-condemningsense. Extremists'viewsaretypicallycontrastedwiththoseofmoderates.InWesterncountriesforexample,incontemporarydiscourseonIslamoronIslamicpoliticalmovements,thedistinctionbetweenextremistandmoderateMuslimsiscommonlystressed.[3] Politicalagendasperceivedasextremistoftenincludethosefromthefar-leftpoliticsorfar-rightpoliticsaswellasradicalism,reactionism,fundamentalismandfanaticism.PoliticalextremismcanbedefinedasthosepoliciesthatviolateorerodeinternationalhumanrightsnormsasfoundintheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRights. Contents 1Definitions 2Theoriesofextremism 2.1Psychological 3Criticism 4Otherterms 5Seealso 6References 6.1Citations 6.2Citedpublications 7Furtherreading 8Externallinks Definitions[edit] LookupextremisminWiktionary,thefreedictionary. Therehavebeenmanydifferentdefinitionsofextremism.PeterT. ColemanandAndreaBartoligiveobservationofdefinitions:[4]Extremismisacomplexphenomenon,althoughitscomplexityisoftenhardtosee.Mostsimply,itcanbedefinedasactivities(beliefs,attitudes,feelings,actions,strategies)ofacharacterfarremovedfromtheordinary.Inconflictsettingsitmanifestsasasevereformofconflictengagement.However,thelabelingofactivities,people,andgroupsas"extremist",andthedefiningofwhatis"ordinary"inanysettingisalwaysasubjectiveandpoliticalmatter.Thus,wesuggestthatanydiscussionofextremismbemindfulofthefollowing:Typically,thesameextremistactwillbeviewedbysomeasjustandmoral(suchaspro-social"freedomfighting"),andbyothersasunjustandimmoral(antisocial"terrorism")dependingontheobserver'svalues,politics,moralscope,andthenatureoftheirrelationshipwiththeactor.Inaddition,one'ssenseofthemoralorimmoralnatureofagivenactofextremism(suchasNelsonMandela'suseofguerillawartacticsagainsttheSouthAfricanGovernment)maychangeasconditions(leadership,worldopinion,crises,historicalaccounts,etc.)change.Thus,thecurrentandhistoricalcontextofextremistactsshapesourviewofthem.Powerdifferencesalsomatterwhendefiningextremism.Wheninconflict,theactivitiesofmembersoflowpowergroupstendtobeviewedasmoreextremethansimilaractivitiescommittedbymembersofgroupsadvocatingthestatusquo. Inaddition,extremeactsaremorelikelytobeemployedbymarginalizedpeopleandgroupswhoviewmorenormativeformsofconflictengagementasblockedforthemorbiased.However,dominantgroupsalsocommonlyemployextremeactivities(suchasgovernmentalsanctioningofviolentparamilitarygroupsortheattackinWacobytheFBIintheU.S.). Extremistactsoftenemployviolentmeans,althoughextremistgroupswilldifferintheirpreferenceforviolentextremismvs.nonviolentextremism,inthelevelofviolencetheyemploy,andinthepreferredtargetsoftheirviolence(frominfrastructuretomilitarypersonneltocivilianstochildren).Again,lowpowergroupsaremorelikelytoemploydirect,episodicformsofviolence(suchassuicidebombings),whereasdominantgroupstendtobeassociatedwithmorestructuralorinstitutionalizedforms(likethecovertuseoftortureortheinformalsanctioningofpolicebrutality).[4] Althoughextremistindividualsandgroupsareoftenviewedascohesiveandconsistentlyevil,itisimportanttorecognizethattheymaybeconflictedorambivalentpsychologicallyasindividuals,orcontaindifferenceandconflictwithintheirgroups.Forinstance,individualmembersofHamasmaydifferconsiderablyintheirwillingnesstonegotiatetheirdifferenceswiththePalestinianAuthorityand,ultimately,withcertainfactionsinIsrael.Ultimately,thecoreproblemthatextremismpresentsinsituationsofprotractedconflictislesstheseverityoftheactivities(althoughviolence,trauma,andescalationareobviousconcerns)butmoresotheclosed,fixed,andintolerantnatureofextremistattitudes,andtheirsubsequentimperviousnesstochange.[4] Theoriesofextremism[edit] EricHofferandArthurSchlesingerJr.weretwopoliticalwritersduringthemid-20thcenturywhogavewhatpurportedtobeaccountsof"politicalextremism".HofferwroteTheTrueBelieverandThePassionateStateofMindaboutthepsychologyandsociologyofthosewhojoin"fanatical"massmovements.SchlesingerwroteTheVitalCenter,championingasupposed"center"ofpoliticswithinwhich"mainstream"politicaldiscoursetakesplace,andunderscoringtheallegedneedforsocietiestodrawdefinitelinesregardingwhatfallsoutsideofthisacceptability. SeymourMartinLipsetarguedthatbesidestheextremismoftheleftandrightthereisalsoanextremismofthecenter,andthatitactuallyformedthebaseoffascism.[5] LairdWilcoxidentifies21allegedtraitsofa"politicalextremist",rangingfrom"atendencytocharacterassassination"andhatefulbehaviourlike"namecallingandlabelling",togeneralcharactertraitslike"atendencytoviewopponentsandcriticsasessentiallyevil","atendencytosubstituteintimidationforargument"or"groupthink".[6] "Extremism"isnotastand-alonecharacteristic.Theattitudeorbehaviorofan"extremist"mayberepresentedaspartofaspectrum,whichrangesfrommildinterestthrough"obsession"to"fanaticism"and"extremism".Theallegedsimilaritybetweenthe"extremeleft"and"extremeright",orperhapsbetweenopposingreligiouszealots,maymeanonlythatalltheseare"unacceptable"fromthestandpointofasupposedmainstreamormajority. EconomistRonaldWintrobe[7]arguesthatmanyextremistmovements,eventhoughhavingcompletelydifferentideologies,shareacommonsetofcharacteristics.Asanexample,heliststhefollowingcommoncharacteristicsbetween"Jewishfundamentalists"and"theextremistsofHamas":[8] Bothareagainstanycompromisewiththeotherside. Bothareentirelysureoftheirposition. Bothadvocateandsometimesuseviolencetoachievetheirends. Botharenationalistic. Bothareintolerantofdissentwithintheirgroup. Bothdemonizetheotherside. Psychological[edit] Amongtheexplanationsforextremismisonethatviewsitasaplague.ArnoGruensaid,"Thelackofidentityassociatedwithextremistsistheresultofself-destructiveself-hatredthatleadstofeelingsofrevengetowardlifeitself,andacompulsiontokillone'sownhumanness."Extremismisseenasnotatactic,noranideology,butasapathologicalillnesswhichfeedsonthedestructionoflife.[4]Dr.KathleenTaylorbelievesreligiousfundamentalismisamentalillnessandthatis"curable."[9]Therearedistinctpsychologicalfeaturesofextremiststhatcontributetoconflictamongsocietalgroups,Jan-WillemvanProoijenidentifiedthemaspsychologicaldistress,cognitivesimplicity,overconfidenceandintolerance.[10] Anotherviewisthatextremismisanemotionaloutletforseverefeelingsstemmingfrom"persistentexperiencesofoppression,insecurity,humiliation,resentment,loss,andrage"whicharepresumedto"leadindividualsandgroupstoadoptconflictengagementstrategieswhich"fit"orfeelconsistentwiththeseexperiences".[4] Extremismisseenbyotherresearchersasa"rationalstrategyinagameoverpower",[4]asdescribedintheworksofEliBerman. Ina2018studyatUniversityCollegeLondon,scientistshavedemonstratedthatpeoplewithextremepoliticalviews(bothextremerightandextremeleft)hadsignificantlyworsemetacognition,ortheabilityofapersontorecognizetheyarewrongandmodifytheirviewswhenpresentedwithcontraryevidence,thuscreatinganopinionthatsupportsonlytheirideaofwrongandright.Peoplefoundoneitherofthepoliticalextremeswereshowntohavemuchgreater(butmisplaced)confidenceintheirbeliefs,andresistedchange.[11] A2019studyfoundthatpoliticalextremismonboththeleftandrighttendedtohavefourcommonpsychologicalfeatures:psychologicaldistressstimulatestheadoptionofanextremeideologicaloutlook,extremeideologiestendtohaverelativelysimplisticblack-whiteperceptionsofthesocialworld,saidmentalsimplicitycausesoverconfidenceinjudgementsandpoliticalextremistsarelesstolerantofdifferentgroupsandopinionsthanmoderates.[12] Criticism[edit] Afterbeingaccusedofextremism,MartinLutherKingJr.criticizedthemainstreamusageoftheterminhisLetterfromBirminghamJail, "ButthoughIwasinitiallydisappointedatbeingcategorizedasanextremist,asIcontinuedtothinkaboutthematterIgraduallygainedameasureofsatisfactionfromthelabel.WasnotJesusanextremistforlove…WasnotAmosanextremistforjustice…WasnotMartinLutheranextremist…Sothequestionisnotwhetherwewillbeextremists,butwhatkindofextremistswewillbe.Willwebeextremistsforhateorforlove?Willwebeextremistsforthepreservationofinjusticeorfortheextensionofjustice?"[13][14] Inhis1964acceptancespeechatthe1964RepublicanNationalConvention,BarryGoldwatersaid,"Iwouldremindyouthatextremisminthedefenseoflibertyisnovice.Andletmeremindyoualsothatmoderationinthepursuitofjusticeisnovirtue."[15] RobertF.Kennedysaid"Whatisobjectionable,whatisdangerousaboutextremistsisnotthattheyareextremebutthattheyareintolerant.Theevilisnotwhattheysayabouttheircause,butwhattheysayabouttheiropponents."[citationneeded] InRussia,thelawsprohibitingextremistcontentareused(bothbypoorlytrainedofficialsandaspartofanintentionalpoliticstosuppressopposition)[citationneeded]tosuppressthefreedomofspeechthroughverybroadandflexibleinterpretation.[16]Publishedmaterialclassifiedas"extremist",andthusprosecuted,includedprotestsagainstthecourtrulingsintheBolotnayaSquarecase("callingforillegalaction"),criticismofoverspendingbyalocalgovernor("insultoftheauthorities"),publishingapoeminsupportofUkraine("incitinghatred"),[17][18]anopenletteragainstawarinChechnyabythewriterPolinaZherebcova,[19]theJehovah'sWitnessesmovementinRussia,[20]RaphaelLemkin,andarticlesbytheinitiatoroftheGenocideConventionof1948.[21] Otherterms[edit] Sincethe1990s,inUnitedStatespoliticsthetermSisterSouljahmomenthasbeenusedtodescribeapolitician'spublicrepudiationofanallegedlyextremistpersonorgroup,statement,orpositionwhichmightotherwisebeassociatedwithhisownparty.[citationneeded] Theterm"subversive"wasoftenusedinterchangeably,intheUnitedStatesatleast,with"extremist"duringtheColdWarperiod,althoughthetwowordsarenotsynonymous.[citationneeded] Seealso[edit] Christianterrorism Cumulativeextremism DomesticExtremismLexicon Falseconsensuseffect Fundamentalism Hategroup Hindutva Horseshoetheory Islamicextremism Kahanism PoliticalextremisminJapan Religiouspersecution Sikhextremism Terrorism Vigilantism Violentextremism References[edit] Citations[edit] ^"Definitionofextremism".Merriam-WebsterDictionary.Retrieved4December2015. ^"Extremism–definitionof".TheFreeDictionary.Retrieved4December2015. ^Mogahed,Dalia(2006)."TheBattleforHeartsandMinds:Moderatevs.ExtremistViewsintheMuslimWorld"(PDF).WikiLeaks.p. 2. ^abcdefDr.PeterT.ColemanandDr.AndreaBartoli:AddressingExtremism,pp.3–4 ^G.M.Tamás:"OnPost-FascismArchived2014-08-26attheWaybackMachine",BostonReview,Summer2000 ^"LairdWilcoxonExtremistTraits".Lairdwilcox.com.Retrieved2013-09-08. ^"Economicsat[Universityof]Western[Ontario]".Economics.uwo.ca.Retrieved2013-09-08. ^Wintrobe(2006),p.5 ^Bruxelles,Simonde(30May2013)."Science'mayonedaycureIslamicradicals'".TheTimes.London.Retrieved2013-05-31. ^vanProoijen,Jan-Willem;Krouwel,AndréP.M.(2019-04-01)."PsychologicalFeaturesofExtremePoliticalIdeologies".CurrentDirectionsinPsychologicalScience.28(2):159–163.doi:10.1177/0963721418817755.ISSN 0963-7214. ^"Peoplewithextremepoliticalviews'cannottellwhentheyarewrong',studyfinds".TheIndependent.2018-12-17.Retrieved2018-12-23. ^vanProoijen,Jan-Willem,andAndréPMKrouwel."PsychologicalFeaturesofExtremePoliticalIdeologies."CurrentDirectionsinPsychologicalScience(2018):0963721418817755. ^"LetterFromaBirminghamJail-TheMartinLutherKing,Jr.,ResearchandEducationInstitute".kinginstitute.stanford.edu.Retrieved18October2018. ^"WhatMartinLutherKingtaughtmeaboutextremism".independent.co.uk.29August2013.Retrieved18October2018. ^"Washingtonpost.com:GoldwaterSpeech".www.washingtonpost.com.Retrieved18October2018. ^PaulGoble(29March2015)."FSBIncreasinglyInvolvedinMisuseof'Anti-Extremism'Laws,SOVASays".TheInterpreterMagazine.Retrieved2015-04-01. ^"Examplesofforbiddencontent".Zapretno.info.2014.Archivedfromtheoriginalon30October2014.Retrieved2014-10-29. ^Neef,Christian;Schepp,Matthias(22April2014)."ThePropagandaWar:OppositionSingsKremlinTuneonUkraine".SpiegelOnline.Retrieved2015-06-10. ^"OtkrytoePismoHodorkovskomuoVoynevChechnePriznaliEkstremistskim".meduza.io.Retrieved2015-07-08. ^"RussianAppellateCourtDecisionReversesBanofJW.ORGWebsite".Retrieved2015-08-20. ^"Федеральныйсписокэкстремистскихматериаловдоросдоп.3152".SOVACenterforInformationandAnalysis.Retrieved2015-11-28. Citedpublications[edit] George,JohnandLairdWilcox.Nazis,Communists,Klansmen,andOthersontheFringe:PoliticalExtremisminAmerica.PrometheusBooks,1992.(ISBN 0-87975-680-2) Himmelstein,JeromeL.AllButSleepingwiththeEnemy:StudyingtheRadicalRightUpClose.ASA,SanFrancisco:1988 Hoffer,Eric.TheTrueBeliever:ThoughtsontheNatureofMassMovements.Variouseditions,firstpublished1951. Schlesinger,ArthurJr.TheVitalCenter:ThePoliticsofFreedom.Variouseditions,firstpublished1949. Wilcox,Laird."WhatIsPoliticalExtremism",retrievedfromTheVoluntaryistnewsletter#27,1987 RonaldWintrobe(2006).RationalExtremism:ThePoliticalEconomyofRadicalism.CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-521-85964-6. Furtherreading[edit] Bartlett,Jamie;Birdwell,Jonathan(April16,2010).TheEdgeofViolence:ARadicalApproachtoExtremism.Demos.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2010-10-09. Nawaz,Maajid.Radical:MyJourneyoutofIslamistExtremism(LyonsPress,2013) vanGinkel,Bibi.EngagingCivilSocietyinCounteringViolentExtremism(ICCT–TheHague,2012) Externallinks[edit] WikiquotehasquotationsrelatedtoExtremism. LookupextremisminWiktionary,thefreedictionary. TheMandSCollectionattheLibraryofCongresscontainsmaterialsonExtremistMovements. 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