Vampire - Wikipedia

A vampire is a creature from folklore that subsists by feeding on the vital essence of the living. In European folklore, vampires are undead creatures that ... Vampire FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Undeadcreaturefromfolklore Forotheruses,seeVampire(disambiguation). TheVampire,byPhilipBurne-Jones,1897 PartofaseriesontheParanormal Mainarticles Astralprojection Astrology Aura Bilocation Breatharianism Clairvoyance Closeencounter Coldspot Crystalgazing Conjuration Cryptozoology Demonicpossession Demonology Ectoplasm Electronicvoicephenomenon Exorcism Extrasensoryperception Forteana Fortunetelling Ghosthunting Indigochildren Magic Mediumship Miracle Occult Orb Ouija Paranormalfiction Paranormaltelevision Precognition Preternatural Psychic Psychicreading Psychokinesis Psychometry Reincarnation Remoteviewing Retrocognition Spiritphotography Spiritpossession Spiritworld Spiritualism StoneTape Supernatural Telepathy Table-turning Ufology Reportedlyhauntedlocations: India UnitedKingdom UnitedStates World Skepticism Coldreading CommitteeforSkepticalInquiry Debunking Hoax JamesRandiEducationalFoundation Magicalthinking Prizesforevidenceoftheparanormal Pseudoskepticism Scientificliteracy Scientificskepticism Related Anomalistics Argumentfromignorance Argumentumadpopulum Bandwagoneffect Beggingthequestion Cognitivedissonance Communalreinforcement Fallacy Falsifiability Fringescience Groupthink Hypnosis Junkscience Protoscience Pseudoscience Scientificevidence Scientificmethod Superstition Uncertainty Urbanlegend Parapsychology Anomalousexperiences Apparitionalexperiences Brainwashing Deathandculture Falseawakening Hypnosis Ideomotorphenomenon Out-of-bodyexperiences Parapsychology Synchronicity vte Avampireisacreaturefromfolklorethatsubsistsbyfeedingonthevitalessence(generallyintheformofblood)oftheliving.InEuropeanfolklore,vampiresareundeadcreaturesthatoftenvisitedlovedonesandcausedmischiefordeathsintheneighbourhoodstheyinhabitedwhiletheywerealive.Theyworeshroudsandwereoftendescribedasbloatedandofruddyordarkcountenance,markedlydifferentfromtoday'sgaunt,palevampirewhichdatesfromtheearly19thcentury. Vampiricentitieshavebeenrecordedinmostcultures;thetermvampirewaspopularizedinWesternEuropeafterreportsofan18th-centurymasshysteriaofapre-existingfolkbeliefintheBalkansandEasternEuropethatinsomecasesresultedincorpsesbeingstakedandpeoplebeingaccusedofvampirism.[1]LocalvariantsinEasternEuropewerealsoknownbydifferentnames,suchasshtrigainAlbania,vrykolakasinGreeceandstrigoiinRomania. Inmoderntimes,thevampireisgenerallyheldtobeafictitiousentity,althoughbeliefinsimilarvampiriccreaturessuchasthechupacabrastillpersistsinsomecultures.Earlyfolkbeliefinvampireshassometimesbeenascribedtotheignoranceofthebody'sprocessofdecompositionafterdeathandhowpeopleinpre-industrialsocietiestriedtorationalizethis,creatingthefigureofthevampiretoexplainthemysteriesofdeath.Porphyriawaslinkedwithlegendsofvampirismin1985andreceivedmuchmediaexposure,buthassincebeenlargelydiscredited.[2][3] Thecharismaticandsophisticatedvampireofmodernfictionwasbornin1819withthepublicationof"TheVampyre"bytheEnglishwriterJohnPolidori;thestorywashighlysuccessfulandarguablythemostinfluentialvampireworkoftheearly19thcentury.[1]BramStoker's1897novelDraculaisrememberedasthequintessentialvampirenovelandprovidedthebasisofthemodernvampirelegend,eventhoughitwaspublishedafterfellowIrishauthorJosephSheridanLeFanu's1872novelCarmilla.Thesuccessofthisbookspawnedadistinctivevampiregenre,stillpopularinthe21stcentury,withbooks,films,televisionshows,andvideogames.Thevampirehassincebecomeadominantfigureinthehorrorgenre. Contents 1Etymology 2Folkbeliefs 2.1Descriptionandcommonattributes 2.1.1Creatingvampires 2.1.2Identifyingvampires 2.1.3Protection 2.1.4Methodsofdestruction 2.2Ancientbeliefs 2.3MedievalandlaterEuropeanfolklore 2.3.118th-centuryvampirecontroversy 2.3.2Dissertationsonvampirology 2.4Non-Europeanbeliefs 2.4.1Africa 2.4.2TheAmericas 2.4.3Asia 2.5Modernbeliefs 2.5.1Collectivenoun 3Originsofvampirebeliefs 3.1Pathology 3.1.1Decomposition 3.1.2Prematureburial 3.1.3Contagion 3.1.4Porphyria 3.1.5Rabies 3.2Psychodynamictheories 3.3Politicalinterpretations 3.4Psychopathology 3.5Modernvampiresubcultures 3.6Vampirebats 4Inmodernfiction 4.1Literature 4.2Filmandtelevision 4.3Games 5References 6Externallinks Etymology Thewordvampire(asvampyre)firstappearedinEnglishin1732,innewsreportsaboutvampire"epidemics"ineasternEurope.[4]VampireshadalreadybeendiscussedinFrench[5]andGermanliterature.[6]AfterAustriagainedcontrolofnorthernSerbiaandOlteniawiththeTreatyofPassarowitzin1718,officialsnotedthelocalpracticeofexhumingbodiesand"killingvampires".[6]Thesereports,preparedbetween1725and1732,receivedwidespreadpublicity.[6]TheEnglishtermwasderived(possiblyviaFrenchvampyre)fromtheGermanVampir,inturnderivedintheearly18thcenturyfromtheSerbianvampir(SerbianCyrillic:вампир).[7][8][9][10] TheSerbianformhasparallelsinvirtuallyallSlaviclanguages:BulgarianandMacedonianвампир(vampir),Bosnian:vampir/вампир,Croatianvampir,CzechandSlovakupír,Polishwąpierz,and(perhapsEastSlavic-influenced)upiór,Ukrainianупир(upyr),Russianупырь(upyr'),Belarusianупыр(upyr),fromOldEastSlavicупирь(upir')(manyoftheselanguageshavealsoborrowedformssuchas"vampir/wampir"subsequentlyfromtheWest;thesearedistinctfromtheoriginallocalwordsforthecreature).Theexactetymologyisunclear.[11]Amongtheproposedproto-Slavicformsare*ǫpyrьand*ǫpirь.[12] AnotherlesswidespreadtheoryisthattheSlaviclanguageshaveborrowedthewordfromaTurkictermfor"witch"(e.g.,Tatarubyr).[12][13]CzechlinguistVáclavMachekproposesSlovakverb"vrepiťsa"(stickto,thrustinto),oritshypotheticalanagram"vperiťsa"(inCzech,thearchaicverb"vpeřit"means"tothrustviolently")asanetymologicalbackground,andthustranslates"upír"as"someonewhothrusts,bites".[14]AnearlyuseoftheOldRussianwordisintheanti-pagantreatise"WordofSaintGrigoriy"(RussianСловосвятогоГригория),datedvariouslytothe11th–13thcenturies,wherepaganworshipofupyriisreported.[15][16] Folkbeliefs Seealso:Listofvampiresinfolklore Thenotionofvampirismhasexistedformillennia.CulturessuchastheMesopotamians,Hebrews,AncientGreeks,ManipuriandRomanshadtalesofdemonsandspiritswhichareconsideredprecursorstomodernvampires.Despitetheoccurrenceofvampiriccreaturesintheseancientcivilizations,thefolklorefortheentityknowntodayasthevampireoriginatesalmostexclusivelyfromearly18th-centurysoutheasternEurope,[1]whenverbaltraditionsofmanyethnicgroupsoftheregionwererecordedandpublished.Inmostcases,vampiresarerevenantsofevilbeings,suicidevictims,orwitches,buttheycanalsobecreatedbyamalevolentspiritpossessingacorpseorbybeingbittenbyavampire.Beliefinsuchlegendsbecamesopervasivethatinsomeareasitcausedmasshysteriaandevenpublicexecutionsofpeoplebelievedtobevampires.[17] Descriptionandcommonattributes Vampire(1895)byEdvardMunch Itisdifficulttomakeasingle,definitivedescriptionofthefolkloricvampire,thoughthereareseveralelementscommontomanyEuropeanlegends.Vampireswereusuallyreportedasbloatedinappearance,andruddy,purplish,ordarkincolour;thesecharacteristicswereoftenattributedtotherecentdrinkingofblood.Bloodwasoftenseenseepingfromthemouthandnosewhenonewasseeninitsshroudorcoffinanditslefteyewasoftenopen.[18]Itwouldbecladinthelinenshrouditwasburiedin,anditsteeth,hair,andnailsmayhavegrownsomewhat,thoughingeneralfangswerenotafeature.[19]Althoughvampiresweregenerallydescribedasundead,somefolktalesspokeofthemaslivingbeings.[20][21] Creatingvampires IllustrationofavampirefromMaxErnst'sUneSemainedeBonté(1934) Thecausesofvampiricgenerationweremanyandvariedinoriginalfolklore.InSlavicandChinesetraditions,anycorpsethatwasjumpedoverbyananimal,particularlyadogoracat,wasfearedtobecomeoneoftheundead.[22]Abodywithawoundthathadnotbeentreatedwithboilingwaterwasalsoatrisk.InRussianfolklore,vampiresweresaidtohaveoncebeenwitchesorpeoplewhohadrebelledagainsttheRussianOrthodoxChurchwhiletheywerealive.[23] Culturalpracticesoftenarosethatwereintendedtopreventarecentlydeceasedlovedonefromturningintoanundeadrevenant.Buryingacorpseupside-downwaswidespread,aswasplacingearthlyobjects,suchasscythesorsickles,[24]nearthegravetosatisfyanydemonsenteringthebodyortoappeasethedeadsothatitwouldnotwishtoarisefromitscoffin.ThismethodresemblestheancientGreekpracticeofplacinganobolusinthecorpse'smouthtopaythetolltocrosstheRiverStyxintheunderworld.Ithasbeenarguedthatinstead,thecoinwasintendedtowardoffanyevilspiritsfromenteringthebody,andthismayhaveinfluencedlatervampirefolklore.ThistraditionpersistedinmodernGreekfolkloreaboutthevrykolakas,inwhichawaxcrossandpieceofpotterywiththeinscription"JesusChristconquers"wereplacedonthecorpsetopreventthebodyfrombecomingavampire.[25] OthermethodscommonlypractisedinEuropeincludedseveringthetendonsatthekneesorplacingpoppyseeds,millet,orsandonthegroundatthegravesiteofapresumedvampire;thiswasintendedtokeepthevampireoccupiedallnightbycountingthefallengrains,[26]indicatinganassociationofvampireswitharithmomania.SimilarChinesenarrativesstatethatifavampiricbeingcameacrossasackofrice,itwouldhavetocounteverygrain;thisisathemeencounteredinmythsfromtheIndiansubcontinent,aswellasinSouthAmericantalesofwitchesandothersortsofevilormischievousspiritsorbeings.[27] InAlbanianfolklore,thedhampiristhehybridchildofthekarkanxholl(alycanthropiccreaturewithanironmailshirt)orthelugat(awater-dwellingghostormonster).Thedhampirsprungofakarkanxhollhastheuniqueabilitytodiscernthekarkanxholl;fromthisderivestheexpressionthedhampirknowsthelugat.Thelugatcannotbeseen,hecanonlybekilledbythedhampir,whohimselfisusuallythesonofalugat.Indifferentregions,animalscanberevenantsaslugats;also,livingpeopleduringtheirsleep.DhampirajisalsoanAlbaniansurname.[28] Identifyingvampires Manyritualswereusedtoidentifyavampire.Onemethodoffindingavampire'sgraveinvolvedleadingavirginboythroughagraveyardorchurchgroundsonavirginstallion—thehorsewouldsupposedlybalkatthegraveinquestion.[23]Generallyablackhorsewasrequired,thoughinAlbaniaitshouldbewhite.[29]Holesappearingintheearthoveragraveweretakenasasignofvampirism.[30] Corpsesthoughttobevampiresweregenerallydescribedashavingahealthierappearancethanexpected,plumpandshowinglittleornosignsofdecomposition.[31]Insomecases,whensuspectedgraveswereopened,villagersevendescribedthecorpseashavingfreshbloodfromavictimalloveritsface.[32]Evidencethatavampirewasactiveinagivenlocalityincludeddeathofcattle,sheep,relativesorneighbours.Folkloricvampirescouldalsomaketheirpresencefeltbyengaginginminorpoltergeist-styledactivity,suchashurlingstonesonroofsormovinghouseholdobjects,[33]andpressingonpeopleintheirsleep.[34] Protection Garlic,Bibles,crucifixes,rosaries,holywater,andmirrorshaveallbeenseeninvariousfolklorictraditionsasmeansofwardingagainstoridentifyingvampires.[35][36] Apotropaics—itemsabletowardoffrevenants—arecommoninvampirefolklore.Garlicisacommonexample,[35]abranchofwildroseandhawthornaresaidtoharmvampires,andinEurope,sprinklingmustardseedsontheroofofahousewassaidtokeepthemaway.[37]Otherapotropaicsincludesacreditems,forexampleacrucifix,rosary,orholywater.Vampiresaresaidtobeunabletowalkonconsecratedground,suchasthatofchurchesortemples,orcrossrunningwater.[36] Althoughnottraditionallyregardedasanapotropaic,mirrorshavebeenusedtowardoffvampireswhenplaced,facingoutwards,onadoor(insomecultures,vampiresdonothaveareflectionandsometimesdonotcastashadow,perhapsasamanifestationofthevampire'slackofasoul).[38]Thisattributeisnotuniversal(theGreekvrykolakas/tympanioswascapableofbothreflectionandshadow),butwasusedbyBramStokerinDraculaandhasremainedpopularwithsubsequentauthorsandfilmmakers.[39] Sometraditionsalsoholdthatavampirecannotenterahouseunlessinvitedbytheowner;afterthefirstinvitationtheycancomeandgoastheyplease.[38]Thoughfolkloricvampireswerebelievedtobemoreactiveatnight,theywerenotgenerallyconsideredvulnerabletosunlight.[39] Methodsofdestruction Theninth-centuryNørreNæråRunestonefromtheDanishislandofFynisinscribedwitha"gravebindinginscription"usedtokeepthedeceasedinitsgrave.[40] Methodsofdestroyingsuspectedvampiresvaried,withstakingthemostcommonlycitedmethod,particularlyinSouthSlaviccultures.[41]AshwasthepreferredwoodinRussiaandtheBalticstates,[42]orhawthorninSerbia,[43]witharecordofoakinSilesia.[44][45]Aspenwasalsousedforstakes,asitwasbelievedthatChrist'scrosswasmadefromaspen(aspenbranchesonthegravesofpurportedvampireswerealsobelievedtopreventtheirrisingsatnight).[46]Potentialvampiresweremostoftenstakedthroughtheheart,thoughthemouthwastargetedinRussiaandnorthernGermany[47][48]andthestomachinnorth-easternSerbia.[49] Piercingtheskinofthechestwasawayof"deflating"thebloatedvampire.Thisissimilartoapracticeof"anti-vampireburial":buryingsharpobjects,suchassickles,withthecorpse,sothattheymaypenetratetheskinifthebodybloatssufficientlywhiletransformingintoarevenant.[50] DecapitationwasthepreferredmethodinGermanandwesternSlavicareas,withtheheadburiedbetweenthefeet,behindthebuttocksorawayfromthebody.[41]Thisactwasseenasawayofhasteningthedepartureofthesoul,whichinsomecultures,wassaidtolingerinthecorpse.Thevampire'shead,body,orclothescouldalsobespikedandpinnedtotheearthtopreventrising.[51] 800-year-oldskeletonfoundinBulgariastabbedthroughthechestwithanironrod.[52] Romanipeopledrovesteelorironneedlesintoacorpse'sheartandplacedbitsofsteelinthemouth,overtheeyes,earsandbetweenthefingersatthetimeofburial.Theyalsoplacedhawthorninthecorpse'ssockordroveahawthornstakethroughthelegs.Ina16th-centuryburialnearVenice,abrickforcedintothemouthofafemalecorpsehasbeeninterpretedasavampire-slayingritualbythearchaeologistswhodiscovereditin2006.[53]InBulgaria,over100skeletonswithmetalobjects,suchasploughbits,embeddedinthetorsohavebeendiscovered.[52] Furthermeasuresincludedpouringboilingwateroverthegraveorcompleteincinerationofthebody.IntheBalkans,avampirecouldalsobekilledbybeingshotordrowned,byrepeatingthefuneralservice,bysprinklingholywateronthebody,orbyexorcism.InRomania,garliccouldbeplacedinthemouth,andasrecentlyasthe19thcentury,theprecautionofshootingabulletthroughthecoffinwastaken.Forresistantcases,thebodywasdismemberedandthepiecesburned,mixedwithwater,andadministeredtofamilymembersasacure.InSaxonregionsofGermany,alemonwasplacedinthemouthofsuspectedvampires.[54] Ancientbeliefs Lilith(1892),byJohnCollier.AtkinsonArtGalleryandLibrary,Southport,England. Talesofsupernaturalbeingsconsumingthebloodorfleshofthelivinghavebeenfoundinnearlyeveryculturearoundtheworldformanycenturies.[55]Thetermvampiredidnotexistinancienttimes.Blooddrinkingandsimilaractivitieswereattributedtodemonsorspiritswhowouldeatfleshanddrinkblood;eventhedevilwasconsideredsynonymouswiththevampire.[56] Almosteverynationhasassociatedblooddrinkingwithsomekindofrevenantordemon,orinsomecasesadeity.InIndia,forexample,talesofvetālas,ghoulishbeingsthatinhabitcorpses,havebeencompiledintheBaitālPacīsī;aprominentstoryintheKathāsaritsāgaratellsofKingVikramādityaandhisnightlyqueststocaptureanelusiveone.[57]Piśāca,thereturnedspiritsofevil-doersorthosewhodiedinsane,alsobearvampiricattributes.[58] ThePersianswereoneofthefirstcivilizationstohavetalesofblood-drinkingdemons:creaturesattemptingtodrinkbloodfrommenweredepictedonexcavatedpotteryshards.[59]AncientBabyloniaandAssyriahadtalesofthemythicalLilitu,[60]synonymouswithandgivingrisetoLilith(Hebrewלילית)andherdaughterstheLilufromHebrewdemonology.Lilituwasconsideredademonandwasoftendepictedassubsistingonthebloodofbabies,[60]andestries,femaleshapeshifting,blood-drinkingdemons,weresaidtoroamthenightamongthepopulation,seekingvictims.AccordingtoSeferHasidim,estrieswerecreaturescreatedinthetwilighthoursbeforeGodrested.Aninjuredestriecouldbehealedbyeatingbreadandsaltgiventoherbyherattacker.[61] Greco-RomanmythologydescribedtheEmpusae,[62]theLamia,[63]theMormo[64]andthestriges.Overtimethefirsttwotermsbecamegeneralwordstodescribewitchesanddemonsrespectively.EmpusawasthedaughterofthegoddessHecateandwasdescribedasademonic,bronze-footedcreature.Shefeastedonbloodbytransformingintoayoungwomanandseducedmenastheysleptbeforedrinkingtheirblood.[62]TheLamiapreyedonyoungchildrenintheirbedsatnight,suckingtheirblood,asdidthegelloudesorGello.[63]LiketheLamia,thestrigesfeastedonchildren,butalsopreyedonadults.Theyweredescribedashavingthebodiesofcrowsorbirdsingeneral,andwerelaterincorporatedintoRomanmythologyasstrix,akindofnocturnalbirdthatfedonhumanfleshandblood.[65] MedievalandlaterEuropeanfolklore Mainarticle:Vampirefolklorebyregion LithographbyR.deMorainefrom1864showingtownsfolkburningtheexhumedskeletonofanallegedvampire. Manymythssurroundingvampiresoriginatedduringthemedievalperiod.The12th-centuryBritishhistoriansandchroniclersWalterMapandWilliamofNewburghrecordedaccountsofrevenants,[17][66]thoughrecordsinEnglishlegendsofvampiricbeingsafterthisdatearescant.[67]TheOldNorsedraugrisanothermedievalexampleofanundeadcreaturewithsimilaritiestovampires.[68]VampiricbeingswererarelywrittenaboutinJewishliterature;the16th-centuryrabbiDavidbenSolomonibnAbiZimra(Radbaz)wroteofanuncharitableoldwomanwhosebodywasunguardedandunburiedforthreedaysaftershediedandroseasavampiricentity,killinghundredsofpeople.Helinkedthiseventtothelackofashmirah(guarding)afterdeathasthecorpsecouldbeavesselforevilspirits.[69] VampiresproperlyoriginatinginfolklorewerewidelyreportedfromEasternEuropeinthelate17thand18thcenturies.ThesetalesformedthebasisofthevampirelegendthatlaterenteredGermanyandEngland,wheretheyweresubsequentlyembellishedandpopularized.OneoftheearliestrecordingsofvampireactivitycamefromtheregionofIstriainmodernCroatia,in1672.[70]LocalreportsdescribedapanicamongthevillagersinspiredbythebeliefthatJureGrandohadbecomeavampireafterdyingin1656.[71]Localvillagersclaimedhereturnedfromthedeadandbegandrinkingbloodfromthepeopleandsexuallyharassinghiswidow.Thevillageleaderorderedastaketobedriventhroughhisheart.Later,hiscorpsewasalsobeheaded.[72] 18th-centuryvampirecontroversy Duringthe18thcentury,therewasafrenzyofvampiresightingsinEasternEurope,withfrequentstakingsandgravediggingstoidentifyandkillthepotentialrevenants.Evengovernmentofficialsengagedinthehuntingandstakingofvampires.[73]DespitebeingcalledtheAgeofEnlightenment,duringwhichmostfolkloriclegendswerequelled,thebeliefinvampiresincreaseddramatically,resultinginamasshysteriathroughoutmostofEurope.[17]ThepanicbeganwithanoutbreakofallegedvampireattacksinEastPrussiain1721andintheHabsburgMonarchyfrom1725to1734,whichspreadtootherlocalities.Twoinfamousvampirecases,thefirsttobeofficiallyrecorded,involvedthecorpsesofPetarBlagojevichandMilošČečarfromSerbia.Blagojevichwasreportedtohavediedattheageof62,butallegedlyreturnedafterhisdeathaskinghissonforfood.Whenthesonrefused,hewasfounddeadthefollowingday.Blagojevichsupposedlyreturnedandattackedsomeneighbourswhodiedfromlossofblood.[73] Inthesecondcase,Miloš,anex-soldier-turned-farmerwhoallegedlywasattackedbyavampireyearsbefore,diedwhilehaying.Afterhisdeath,peoplebegantodieinthesurroundingareaanditwaswidelybelievedthatMilošhadreturnedtopreyontheneighbours.[74][75]AnotherinfamousSerbianvampirelegendrecountsthestoryofacertainSavaSavanović,wholivesinawatermillandkillsanddrinksbloodfromthemillers.ThecharacterwaslaterusedinastorywrittenbySerbianwriterMilovanGlišićandintheYugoslav1973horrorfilmLeptiricainspiredbythestory.[76] Thetwoincidentswerewell-documented.Governmentofficialsexaminedthebodies,wrotecasereports,andpublishedbooksthroughoutEurope.[75]Thehysteria,commonlyreferredtoasthe"18th-CenturyVampireControversy",ragedforageneration.Theproblemwasexacerbatedbyruralepidemicsofso-calledvampireattacks,undoubtedlycausedbythehigheramountofsuperstitionthatwaspresentinvillagecommunities,withlocalsdiggingupbodiesandinsomecases,stakingthem.[77] Dissertationsonvampirology In1597,KingJameswroteadissertationonwitchcrafttitledDaemonologieinwhichhewrotethebeliefthatdemonscouldpossessboththelivingandthedead.Withinhisclassificationofdemons,heexplainedtheconceptthroughthenotionthatincubiandsuccubaecouldpossessthecorpseofthedeceasedandwalktheearth.Asadevilborrowsadeadbody,itwouldseemsovisiblyandnaturallytoanymanwhoconverseswiththemandthatanysubstancewithinthebodywouldremainintolerablycoldtootherswhichtheyabuse.[78] In1645theGreeklibrarianoftheVatican,LeoAllatius,producedthefirstmethodologicaldescriptionoftheBalkanbeliefsinvampires(Greek:vrykolakas)inhisworkDeGraecorumhodiequorundamopinationibus("OncertainmodernopinionsamongtheGreeks").[79] In1652,theWallachianVoivodeMateiBasarabpassedthefirstlawthatmentionedthebeliefinvampires(inRomanian"Strigoi"),calledÎndreptarealegii(Theright-makingofthelaw).TheparagraphcontainstheopinionandrecommendationofthePatriarchPostniculover"Thedeceased,whichtheywilllearntobeStrigoi,whichiscalledvrykolakas,whatneedstobedone".ThePatriarchproceedsindescribingthebelief:[80] I'veheardinmanycitiesandtowns,it'ssaid,somedreadfulthingsbeingdone,whicharebelowpraiseandgreatfoolishnessandlackofknowledgeofpeopleovertheworkofthedevil.Forthatourenemy,themostunclean,thedevilwherehefindsanemptyplacetodwellanddohiswill,thereheindeeddwellsandmanytimeswithdeceivingapparitionstowardslotsof[bad]deedsheluresthepeopleandleadsthemtowardshiswillinorderthateverywretchpeoplelikethemtosinkanddrowninthedepthofthedamnationoftheeternalfire.Therearesomefoolishpeoplethatsaythatmanytimeswhenpeopledie,theyriseandbecomeStrigoiandkillthosealive,whichdeathcomesinaviolentwayandquicktowardsmanypeople. ThepatriarchdescribestheStrigoisightings(especiallythebloodonalongtimedeceasedbody)asdemonicdeceivingandforbidsanyone,especiallytheclergy,fromdesecratingthegravesorburningthebodiesofthedead,callingitasinforwhichtheyendupinHell. Eventhoughitwasnotpermittedtodesecratethegraveofthedeadpersoninanywayortoburnthedeadbody,thepatriarchofferssomeremediesintheneventofsuchdemonicapparitions: Andthenyoumustknowiftheywilllearnaboutsucha[dead]bodywhichistheworkofthedevil,callthepriesttoreadtheParaklesisoftheTheotokosandheshallperformtheHouseblessingservice,andshallperformliturgyandmakeHolyWaterinaidofeveryoneandshallalsogiveKolivaasalmsandthereafterheshallsaythecurseofthedevilexorcismExorcismofSt.JohnChrysostom.AndthebothexorcismsperformedatBaptismyoushallreadtowardsthosebones[ofthedead].AndthentheHolyWaterfromtheHouseBlessingliturgyyoushallsplashthepeoplewhichwillhappentobethereandthenmoreHolyWateryoushallpouroverthatdeadbodyandwiththegiftofChrist,thedevilshallperish.[80] Titlepageoftreatiseonthechewingandsmackingofthedeadingraves(1734),abookonvampirologybyMichaelRanft. From1679,PhilippeRohrdevotesanessaytothedeadwhochewtheirshroudsintheirgraves,asubjectresumedbyOttoin1732,andthenbyMichaelRanftin1734.Thesubjectwasbasedontheobservationthatwhendiggingupgraves,itwasdiscoveredthatsomecorpseshadatsomepointeitherdevouredtheinteriorfabricoftheircoffinortheirownlimbs.[81]RanftdescribedinhistreatiseofatraditioninsomepartsofGermany,thattopreventthedeadfrommasticatingtheyplacedamoundofdirtundertheirchininthecoffin,placedapieceofmoneyandastoneinthemouth,ortiedahandkerchieftightlyaroundthethroat.[82]In1732ananonymouswriterwritingas"thedoctorWeimar"discussesthenon-putrefactionofthesecreatures,fromatheologicalpointofview.[83]In1733,JohannChristophHarenbergwroteageneraltreatiseonvampirismandtheMarquisd'Argensciteslocalcases.Theologiansandclergymenalsoaddressthetopic.[84] Sometheologicaldisputesarose.Thenon-decayofvampires'bodiescouldrecalltheincorruptionofthebodiesofthesaintsoftheCatholicChurch.Aparagraphonvampireswasincludedinthesecondedition(1749)ofDeservorumDeibeatificationeetsanctorumcanonizatione,OnthebeatificationoftheservantsofGodandoncanonizationoftheblessed,writtenbyProsperoLambertini(PopeBenedictXIV).[85]Inhisopinion,whiletheincorruptionofthebodiesofsaintswastheeffectofadivineintervention,allthephenomenaattributedtovampireswerepurelynaturalorthefruitof"imagination,terrorandfear".Inotherwords,vampiresdidnotexist.[86] CoverpageofTreatiseontheApparitionsofSpiritsandonVampiresorRevenants(1751). EngravingofDomAugustineCalmetfrom1750 DomAugustineCalmet,aFrenchtheologianandscholar,publishedacomprehensivetreatisein1751titledTreatiseontheApparitionsofSpiritsandonVampiresorRevenantswhichinvestigatedtheexistenceofvampires,demons,andspectres.Calmetconductedextensiveresearchandamassedjudicialreportsofvampiricincidentsandextensivelyresearchedtheologicalandmythologicalaccountsaswell,usingthescientificmethodinhisanalysistocomeupwithmethodsfordeterminingthevalidityforcasesofthisnature.Ashestatedinhistreatise:[87] Theysee,itissaid,menwhohavebeendeadforseveralmonths,comebacktoearth,talk,walk,infestvillages,illusebothmenandbeasts,suckthebloodoftheirnearrelations,makethemill,andfinallycausetheirdeath;sothatpeoplecanonlysavethemselvesfromtheirdangerousvisitsandtheirhauntingsbyexhumingthem,impalingthem,cuttingofftheirheads,tearingouttheheart,orburningthem.Theserevenantsarecalledbythenameofoupiresorvampires,thatistosay,leeches;andsuchparticularsarerelatedofthem,sosingular,sodetailed,andinvestedwithsuchprobablecircumstancesandsuchjudicialinformation,thatonecanhardlyrefusetocreditthebeliefwhichisheldinthosecountries,thattheserevenantscomeoutoftheirtombsandproducethoseeffectswhichareproclaimedofthem. Calmethadnumerousreaders,includingbothacriticalVoltaireandnumeroussupportivedemonologistswhointerpretedthetreatiseasclaimingthatvampiresexisted.[77]InthePhilosophicalDictionary,Voltairewrote:[88] Thesevampireswerecorpses,whowentoutoftheirgravesatnighttosuckthebloodoftheliving,eitherattheirthroatsorstomachs,afterwhichtheyreturnedtotheircemeteries.Thepersonssosuckedwaned,grewpale,andfellintoconsumption;whilethesuckingcorpsesgrewfat,gotrosy,andenjoyedanexcellentappetite.ItwasinPoland,Hungary,Silesia,Moravia,Austria,andLorraine,thatthedeadmadethisgoodcheer. ThecontroversyinAustriaonlyceasedwhenEmpressMariaTheresaofAustriasentherpersonalphysician,GerardvanSwieten,toinvestigatetheclaimsofvampiricentities.HeconcludedthatvampiresdidnotexistandtheEmpresspassedlawsprohibitingtheopeningofgravesanddesecrationofbodies,soundingtheendofthevampireepidemics.OtherEuropeancountriesfollowedsuit.Despitethiscondemnation,thevampirelivedoninartisticworksandinlocalfolklore.[77] Non-Europeanbeliefs BeingshavingmanyoftheattributesofEuropeanvampiresappearinthefolkloreofAfrica,Asia,NorthandSouthAmerica,andIndia.Classifiedasvampires,allsharethethirstforblood.[89] Africa VariousregionsofAfricahavefolktalesfeaturingbeingswithvampiricabilities:inWestAfricatheAshantipeopletelloftheiron-toothedandtree-dwellingasanbosam,[90]andtheEwepeopleoftheadze,whichcantaketheformofafireflyandhuntschildren.[91]TheeasternCaperegionhastheimpundulu,whichcantaketheformofalargetalonedbirdandcansummonthunderandlightning,andtheBetsileopeopleofMadagascartelloftheramanga,anoutlaworlivingvampirewhodrinksthebloodandeatsthenailclippingsofnobles.[92]IncolonialEastAfrica,rumorscirculatedtotheeffectthatemployeesofthestatesuchasfiremenandnurseswerevampires,knowninSwahiliaswazimamoto.[93] TheAmericas TheLoogarooisanexampleofhowavampirebeliefcanresultfromacombinationofbeliefs,hereamixtureofFrenchandAfricanVoduorvoodoo.ThetermLoogaroopossiblycomesfromtheFrenchloup-garou(meaning"werewolf")andiscommoninthecultureofMauritius.ThestoriesoftheLoogarooarewidespreadthroughtheCaribbeanIslandsandLouisianaintheUnitedStates.[94]SimilarfemalemonstersaretheSoucouyantofTrinidad,andtheTundaandPatasolaofColombianfolklore,whiletheMapucheofsouthernChilehavethebloodsuckingsnakeknownasthePeuchen.[95]AloeverahungbackwardsbehindornearadoorwasthoughttowardoffvampiricbeingsinSouthAmericanfolklore.[27]AztecmythologydescribedtalesoftheCihuateteo,skull-facedspiritsofthosewhodiedinchildbirthwhostolechildrenandenteredintosexualliaisonswiththeliving,drivingthemmad.[23] Duringthelate18thand19thcenturiesthebeliefinvampireswaswidespreadinpartsofNewEngland,particularlyinRhodeIslandandeasternConnecticut.Therearemanydocumentedcasesoffamiliesdisinterringlovedonesandremovingtheirheartsinthebeliefthatthedeceasedwasavampirewhowasresponsibleforsicknessanddeathinthefamily,althoughtheterm"vampire"wasneverusedtodescribethedead.Thedeadlydiseasetuberculosis,or"consumption"asitwasknownatthetime,wasbelievedtobecausedbynightlyvisitationsonthepartofadeadfamilymemberwhohaddiedofconsumptionthemselves.[96]Themostfamous,andmostrecentlyrecorded,caseofsuspectedvampirismisthatofnineteen-year-oldMercyBrown,whodiedinExeter,RhodeIslandin1892.Herfather,assistedbythefamilyphysician,removedherfromhertombtwomonthsafterherdeath,cutoutherheartandburnedittoashes.[97] Asia VampireshaveappearedinJapanesecinemasincethelate1950s;thefolklorebehinditiswesterninorigin.[98]TheNukekubiisabeingwhoseheadandneckdetachfromitsbodytoflyaboutseekinghumanpreyatnight.[99]LegendsoffemalevampiricbeingswhocandetachpartsoftheirupperbodyalsooccurinthePhilippines,MalaysiaandIndonesia.TherearetwomainvampiriccreaturesinthePhilippines:theTagalogMandurugo("blood-sucker")andtheVisayanManananggal("self-segmenter").Themandurugoisavarietyoftheaswangthattakestheformofanattractivegirlbyday,anddevelopswingsandalong,hollow,threadliketonguebynight.Thetongueisusedtosuckupbloodfromasleepingvictim.[100]Themanananggalisdescribedasbeinganolder,beautifulwomancapableofseveringitsuppertorsoinordertoflyintothenightwithhugebatlikewingsandpreyonunsuspecting,sleepingpregnantwomenintheirhomes.Theyuseanelongatedproboscisliketonguetosuckfetusesfromthesepregnantwomen.Theyalsoprefertoeatentrails(specificallytheheartandtheliver)andthephlegmofsickpeople.[100] TheMalaysianPenanggalanisawomanwhoobtainedherbeautythroughtheactiveuseofblackmagicorotherunnaturalmeans,andismostcommonlydescribedinlocalfolkloretobedarkordemonicinnature.Sheisabletodetachherfangedheadwhichfliesaroundinthenightlookingforblood,typicallyfrompregnantwomen.[101]Malaysianshungjeruju(thistles)aroundthedoorsandwindowsofhouses,hopingthePenanggalanwouldnotenterforfearofcatchingitsintestinesonthethorns.[102]TheLeyakisasimilarbeingfromBalinesefolkloreofIndonesia.[103]AKuntilanakorMatianakinIndonesia,[104]orPontianakorLangsuirinMalaysia,[105]isawomanwhodiedduringchildbirthandbecameundead,seekingrevengeandterrorisingvillages.Sheappearedasanattractivewomanwithlongblackhairthatcoveredaholeinthebackofherneck,withwhichshesuckedthebloodofchildren.Fillingtheholewithherhairwoulddriveheroff.Corpseshadtheirmouthsfilledwithglassbeads,eggsundereacharmpit,andneedlesintheirpalmstopreventthemfrombecominglangsuir.ThisdescriptionwouldalsofittheSundelBolongs.[106] AstilthousetypicaloftheTaiDamethnicminorityofVietnam,whosecommunitiesweresaidtobeterrorizedbytheblood-suckingmacàrồng. InVietnam,thewordusedtotranslateWesternvampires,"macàrồng",originallyreferredtoatypeofdemonthathauntsmodern-dayPhúThọProvince,withinthecommunitiesoftheTaiDamethnicminority.Thewordwasfirstmentionedinthechroniclesof18th-centuryConfucianscholarLêQuýĐôn,[107]whospokeofacreaturethatlivesamonghumans,butstuffsitstoesintoitsnostrilsatnightandfliesbyitsearsintohouseswithpregnantwomentosucktheirblood.Havingfedonthesewomen,themacàrồngthenreturnstoitshouseandcleansitselfbydippingitstoesintobarrelsofsappanwoodwater.Thisallowsthemacàrồngtoliveundetectedamonghumansduringtheday,beforeheadingouttoattackagainbynight.[108] Jiangshi,sometimescalled"Chinesevampires"byWesterners,arereanimatedcorpsesthathoparound,killinglivingcreaturestoabsorblifeessence(qì)fromtheirvictims.Theyaresaidtobecreatedwhenaperson'ssoul(魄pò)failstoleavethedeceased'sbody.[109]Jiangshiareusuallyrepresentedasmindlesscreatureswithnoindependentthought.[110]Thismonsterhasgreenish-whitefurryskin,perhapsderivedfromfungusormouldgrowingoncorpses.[111]JiangshilegendshaveinspiredagenreofjiangshifilmsandliteratureinHongKongandEastAsia.FilmslikeEncountersoftheSpookyKindandMr.Vampirewerereleasedduringthejiangshicinematicboomofthe1980sand1990s.[112][113] Modernbeliefs Inmodernfiction,thevampiretendstobedepictedasasuave,charismaticvillain.[19]Despitethegeneraldisbeliefinvampiricentities,occasionalsightingsofvampiresarereported.Vampirehuntingsocietiesstillexist,buttheyarelargelyformedforsocialreasons.[17]AllegationsofvampireattackssweptthroughMalawiduringlate2002andearly2003,withmobsstoningonepersontodeathandattackingatleastfourothers,includingGovernorEricChiwaya,basedonthebeliefthatthegovernmentwascolludingwithvampires.[114] Inearly1970localpressspreadrumoursthatavampirehauntedHighgateCemeteryinLondon.Amateurvampirehuntersflockedinlargenumberstothecemetery.Severalbookshavebeenwrittenaboutthecase,notablybySeanManchester,alocalmanwhowasamongthefirsttosuggesttheexistenceofthe"HighgateVampire"andwholaterclaimedtohaveexorcisedanddestroyedawholenestofvampiresinthearea.[115]InJanuary2005,rumourscirculatedthatanattackerhadbittenanumberofpeopleinBirmingham,England,fuellingconcernsaboutavampireroamingthestreets.Localpolicestatedthatnosuchcrimehadbeenreportedandthatthecaseappearstobeanurbanlegend.[116] Avampirecostume In2006,aphysicsprofessorattheUniversityofCentralFloridawroteapaperarguingthatitismathematicallyimpossibleforvampirestoexist,basedongeometricprogression.Accordingtothepaper,ifthefirstvampirehadappearedon1January1600,ifitfedonceamonth(whichislessoftenthanwhatisdepictedinfilmsandfolklore),andifeveryvictimturnedintoavampire,thenwithintwoandahalfyearstheentirehumanpopulationofthetimewouldhavebecomevampires.[117] Inoneofthemorenotablecasesofvampiricentitiesinthemodernage,thechupacabra("goat-sucker")ofPuertoRicoandMexicoissaidtobeacreaturethatfeedsuponthefleshordrinksthebloodofdomesticatedanimals,leadingsometoconsideritakindofvampire.The"chupacabrahysteria"wasfrequentlyassociatedwithdeepeconomicandpoliticalcrises,particularlyduringthemid-1990s.[118] InEurope,wheremuchofthevampirefolkloreoriginates,thevampireisusuallyconsideredafictitiousbeing;manycommunitiesmayhaveembracedtherevenantforeconomicpurposes.Insomecases,especiallyinsmalllocalities,beliefsarestillrampantandsightingsorclaimsofvampireattacksoccurfrequently.InRomaniaduringFebruary2004,severalrelativesofTomaPetrefearedthathehadbecomeavampire.Theyduguphiscorpse,toreouthisheart,burnedit,andmixedtheasheswithwaterinordertodrinkit.[119] InSeptember/October2017,mobviolenceinMalawirelatedtoavampirescarekilledabout6peopleaccusedofbeingvampires.[120]Asimilarspateofvigilanteviolencelinkedtovampirerumoursoccurredtherein2002.[121] Vampirismandthevampirelifestylealsorepresentarelevantpartofmodernday'soccultistmovements.[122]Themythosofthevampire,hismagickalqualities,allure,andpredatoryarchetypeexpressastrongsymbolismthatcanbeusedinritual,energywork,andmagick,andcanevenbeadoptedasaspiritualsystem.[123]ThevampirehasbeenpartoftheoccultsocietyinEuropeforcenturiesandhasspreadintotheAmericansubcultureaswellformorethanadecade,beingstronglyinfluencedbyandmixedwiththeneogothicaesthetics.[124] Collectivenoun "Coven"hasbeenusedasacollectivenounforvampires,possiblybasedontheWiccanusage.Analternativecollectivenounisa"house"ofvampires.[125] Originsofvampirebeliefs Commentatorshaveofferedmanytheoriesfortheoriginsofvampirebeliefsandrelatedmasshysteria.Everythingrangingfromprematureburialtotheearlyignoranceofthebody'sdecompositioncycleafterdeathhasbeencitedasthecauseforthebeliefinvampires.[126] Pathology Decomposition PaulBarberinhisbookVampires,BurialandDeathhasdescribedthatbeliefinvampiresresultedfrompeopleofpre-industrialsocietiesattemptingtoexplainthenatural,buttotheminexplicable,processofdeathanddecomposition.[126] Peoplesometimessuspectedvampirismwhenacadaverdidnotlookastheythoughtanormalcorpseshouldwhendisinterred.Ratesofdecompositionvarydependingontemperatureandsoilcomposition,andmanyofthesignsarelittleknown.Thishasledvampirehunterstomistakenlyconcludethatadeadbodyhadnotdecomposedatallor,ironically,tointerpretsignsofdecompositionassignsofcontinuedlife.[127] Corpsesswellasgasesfromdecompositionaccumulateinthetorsoandtheincreasedpressureforcesbloodtooozefromthenoseandmouth.Thiscausesthebodytolook"plump","well-fed",and"ruddy"—changesthatareallthemorestrikingifthepersonwaspaleorthininlife.IntheArnoldPaolecase,anoldwoman'sexhumedcorpsewasjudgedbyherneighbourstolookmoreplumpandhealthythanshehadeverlookedinlife.[128]Theexudingbloodgavetheimpressionthatthecorpsehadrecentlybeenengaginginvampiricactivity.[32] Darkeningoftheskinisalsocausedbydecomposition.[129]Thestakingofaswollen,decomposingbodycouldcausethebodytobleedandforcetheaccumulatedgasestoescapethebody.Thiscouldproduceagroan-likesoundwhenthegasesmovedpastthevocalcords,orasoundreminiscentofflatulencewhentheypassedthroughtheanus.TheofficialreportingonthePetarBlagojevichcasespeaksof"otherwildsignswhichIpassbyoutofhighrespect".[130] Afterdeath,theskinandgumslosefluidsandcontract,exposingtherootsofthehair,nails,andteeth,eventeeththatwereconcealedinthejaw.Thiscanproducetheillusionthatthehair,nails,andteethhavegrown.Atacertainstage,thenailsfalloffandtheskinpeelsaway,asreportedintheBlagojevichcase—thedermisandnailbedsemergingunderneathwereinterpretedas"newskin"and"newnails".[130] Prematureburial Ithasalsobeenhypothesizedthatvampirelegendswereinfluencedbyindividualsbeingburiedalivebecauseofshortcomingsinthemedicalknowledgeofthetime.Insomecasesinwhichpeoplereportedsoundsemanatingfromaspecificcoffin,itwaslaterdugupandfingernailmarkswerediscoveredontheinsidefromthevictimtryingtoescape.Inothercasesthepersonwouldhittheirheads,nosesorfacesanditwouldappearthattheyhadbeen"feeding".[131]Aproblemwiththistheoryisthequestionofhowpeoplepresumablyburiedalivemanagedtostayaliveforanyextendedperiodwithoutfood,waterorfreshair.Analternateexplanationfornoiseisthebubblingofescapinggasesfromnaturaldecompositionofbodies.[132]Anotherlikelycauseofdisorderedtombsisgraverobbery.[133] Contagion Folkloricvampirismhasbeenassociatedwithclustersofdeathsfromunidentifiableormysteriousillnesses,usuallywithinthesamefamilyorthesamesmallcommunity.[96]TheepidemicallusionisobviousintheclassicalcasesofPetarBlagojevichandArnoldPaole,andevenmoresointhecaseofMercyBrownandinthevampirebeliefsofNewEnglandgenerally,whereaspecificdisease,tuberculosis,wasassociatedwithoutbreaksofvampirism.Aswiththepneumonicformofbubonicplague,itwasassociatedwithbreakdownoflungtissuewhichwouldcausebloodtoappearatthelips.[134] Porphyria In1985biochemistDavidDolphinproposedalinkbetweentherareblooddisorderporphyriaandvampirefolklore.Notingthattheconditionistreatedbyintravenoushaem,hesuggestedthattheconsumptionoflargeamountsofbloodmayresultinhaembeingtransportedsomehowacrossthestomachwallandintothebloodstream.Thusvampiresweremerelysufferersofporphyriaseekingtoreplacehaemandalleviatetheirsymptoms.[135] Thetheoryhasbeenrebuffedmedicallyassuggestionsthatporphyriasuffererscravethehaeminhumanblood,orthattheconsumptionofbloodmighteasethesymptomsofporphyria,arebasedonamisunderstandingofthedisease.Furthermore,Dolphinwasnotedtohaveconfusedfictional(bloodsucking)vampireswiththoseoffolklore,manyofwhomwerenotnotedtodrinkblood.[136]Similarly,aparallelismadebetweensensitivitytosunlightbysufferers,yetthiswasassociatedwithfictionalandnotfolkloricvampires.Inanycase,Dolphindidnotgoontopublishhisworkmorewidely.[137]Despitebeingdismissedbyexperts,thelinkgainedmediaattention[138]andenteredpopularmodernfolklore.[139] Rabies Rabieshasbeenlinkedwithvampirefolklore.DrJuanGómez-Alonso,aneurologistatXeralHospitalinVigo,Spain,examinedthispossibilityinareportinNeurology.Thesusceptibilitytogarlicandlightcouldbeduetohypersensitivity,whichisasymptomofrabies.Itcanalsoaffectportionsofthebrainthatcouldleadtodisturbanceofnormalsleeppatterns(thusbecomingnocturnal)andhypersexuality.Legendoncesaidamanwasnotrabidifhecouldlookathisownreflection(anallusiontothelegendthatvampireshavenoreflection).Wolvesandbats,whichareoftenassociatedwithvampires,canbecarriersofrabies.Thediseasecanalsoleadtoadrivetobiteothersandtoabloodyfrothingatthemouth.[140][141] Psychodynamictheories Inhis1931treatiseOntheNightmare,WelshpsychoanalystErnestJonesassertedthatvampiresaresymbolicofseveralunconsciousdrivesanddefencemechanisms.Emotionssuchaslove,guilt,andhatefueltheideaofthereturnofthedeadtothegrave.Desiringareunionwithlovedones,mournersmayprojecttheideathattherecentlydeadmustinreturnyearnthesame.Fromthisarisesthebeliefthatfolkloricvampiresandrevenantsvisitrelatives,particularlytheirspouses,first.[142] Incaseswheretherewasunconsciousguiltassociatedwiththerelationship,thewishforreunionmaybesubvertedbyanxiety.Thismayleadtorepression,whichSigmundFreudhadlinkedwiththedevelopmentofmorbiddread.[143]Jonessurmisedinthiscasetheoriginalwishofa(sexual)reunionmaybedrasticallychanged:desireisreplacedbyfear;loveisreplacedbysadism,andtheobjectorlovedoneisreplacedbyanunknownentity.Thesexualaspectmayormaynotbepresent.[144]Somemoderncriticshaveproposedasimplertheory:Peopleidentifywithimmortalvampiresbecause,bysodoing,theyovercome,oratleasttemporarilyescapefrom,theirfearofdying.[145] Joneslinkedtheinnatesexualityofbloodsuckingwithcannibalism,withafolkloricconnectionwithincubus-likebehaviour.Headdedthatwhenmorenormalaspectsofsexualityarerepressed,regressedformsmaybeexpressed,inparticularsadism;hefeltthatoralsadismisintegralinvampiricbehaviour.[146] Politicalinterpretations PoliticalcartooninPunchmagazinefrom1885,depictingtheIrishNationalLeagueasthe"IrishVampire"preyingonasleepingwoman. Thereinventionofthevampiremythinthemoderneraisnotwithoutpoliticalovertones.[147]ThearistocraticCountDracula,aloneinhiscastleapartfromafewdementedretainers,appearingonlyatnighttofeedonhispeasantry,issymbolicoftheparasiticancienrégime.Inhisentryfor"Vampires"intheDictionnairephilosophique(1764),Voltairenoticeshowthemid-18thcenturycoincidedwiththedeclineofthefolkloricbeliefintheexistenceofvampiresbutthatnow"therewerestock-jobbers,brokers,andmenofbusiness,whosuckedthebloodofthepeopleinbroaddaylight;buttheywerenotdead,thoughcorrupted.Thesetruesuckerslivednotincemeteries,butinveryagreeablepalaces".[148] Marxdefinedcapitalas"deadlabourwhich,vampire-like,livesonlybysuckinglivinglabour,andlivesthemore,themorelabouritsucks".[149]WernerHerzog,inhisNosferatutheVampyre,givesthispoliticalinterpretationanextraironictwistwhenprotagonistJonathonHarker,amiddle-classsolicitor,becomesthenextvampire;inthiswaythecapitalistbourgeoisbecomesthenextparasiticclass.[150] Psychopathology Anumberofmurderershaveperformedseeminglyvampiricritualsupontheirvictims.SerialkillersPeterKürtenandRichardTrentonChasewerebothcalled"vampires"inthetabloidsaftertheywerediscovereddrinkingthebloodofthepeopletheymurdered.Similarly,in1932,anunsolvedmurdercaseinStockholm,Swedenwasnicknamedthe"Vampiremurder",becauseofthecircumstancesofthevictim'sdeath.[151]Thelate-16th-centuryHungariancountessandmassmurderessElizabethBáthorybecameparticularlyinfamousinlatercenturies'works,whichdepictedherbathinginhervictims'bloodinordertoretainbeautyoryouth.[152] Modernvampiresubcultures Mainarticle:Vampirelifestyle Seealso:Psychicvampirism Vampirelifestyleisatermforacontemporarysubcultureofpeople,largelywithintheGothsubculture,whoconsumethebloodofothersasapastime;drawingfromtherichrecenthistoryofpopularculturerelatedtocultsymbolism,horrorfilms,thefictionofAnneRice,andthestylesofVictorianEngland.[153]Activevampirismwithinthevampiresubcultureincludesbothblood-relatedvampirism,commonlyreferredtoassanguinevampirism,andpsychicvampirism,orsupposedfeedingfrompranicenergy.[122][154] Vampirebats Mainarticle:Vampirebat AvampirebatinPeru. Althoughmanycultureshavestoriesaboutthem,vampirebatshaveonlyrecentlybecomeanintegralpartofthetraditionalvampirelore.VampirebatswereintegratedintovampirefolkloreaftertheywerediscoveredontheSouthAmericanmainlandinthe16thcentury.[155]TherearenovampirebatsinEurope,butbatsandowlshavelongbeenassociatedwiththesupernaturalandomens,mainlybecauseoftheirnocturnalhabits,[155][156]andinmodernEnglishheraldictradition,abatmeans"Awarenessofthepowersofdarknessandchaos".[157] ThethreespeciesofvampirebatsareallendemictoLatinAmerica,andthereisnoevidencetosuggestthattheyhadanyOldWorldrelativeswithinhumanmemory.Itisthereforeimpossiblethatthefolkloricvampirerepresentsadistortedpresentationormemoryofthevampirebat.Thebatswerenamedafterthefolkloricvampireratherthanviceversa;theOxfordEnglishDictionaryrecordstheirfolkloricuseinEnglishfrom1734andthezoologicalnotuntil1774.Thedangerofrabiesinfectionaside,thevampirebat'sbiteisusuallynotharmfultoaperson,butthebathasbeenknowntoactivelyfeedonhumansandlargepreysuchascattleandoftenleavesthetrademark,two-prongbitemarkonitsvictim'sskin.[155] TheliteraryDraculatransformsintoabatseveraltimesinthenovel,andvampirebatsthemselvesarementionedtwiceinit.The1927stageproductionofDraculafollowedthenovelinhavingDraculaturnintoabat,asdidthefilm,whereBélaLugosiwouldtransformintoabat.[155]ThebattransformationscenewasusedagainbyLonChaneyJr.in1943'sSonofDracula.[158] Inmodernfiction Seealso:Listoffictionalvampires Thevampireisnowafixtureinpopularfiction.Suchfictionbeganwith18th-centurypoetryandcontinuedwith19th-centuryshortstories,thefirstandmostinfluentialofwhichwasJohnPolidori's"TheVampyre"(1819),featuringthevampireLordRuthven.[159]LordRuthven'sexploitswerefurtherexploredinaseriesofvampireplaysinwhichhewastheantihero.ThevampirethemecontinuedinpennydreadfulserialpublicationssuchasVarneytheVampire(1847)andculminatedinthepre-eminentvampirenovelinhistory:DraculabyBramStoker,publishedin1897.[160] Overtime,someattributesnowregardedasintegralbecameincorporatedintothevampire'sprofile:fangsandvulnerabilitytosunlightappearedoverthecourseofthe19thcentury,withVarneytheVampireandCountDraculabothbearingprotrudingteeth,[161]andCountOrlokofMurnau'sNosferatu(1922)fearingdaylight.[162]Thecloakappearedinstageproductionsofthe1920s,withahighcollarintroducedbyplaywrightHamiltonDeanetohelpDracula'vanish'onstage.[163]LordRuthvenandVarneywereabletobehealedbymoonlight,althoughnoaccountofthisisknownintraditionalfolklore.[164]Impliedthoughnotoftenexplicitlydocumentedinfolklore,immortalityisoneattributewhichfeaturesheavilyinvampirefilmandliterature.Muchismadeofthepriceofeternallife,namelytheincessantneedforbloodofformerequals.[165] Literature Mainarticle:Vampireliterature CoverfromoneoftheoriginalserializededitionsofVarneytheVampire,aninfluentialpublicationinthedevelopmentofthemodernvampiregenre.[160] ThevampireorrevenantfirstappearedinpoemssuchasTheVampire(1748)byHeinrichAugustOssenfelder,Lenore(1773)byGottfriedAugustBürger,DieBrautvonCorinth(TheBrideofCorinth)(1797)byJohannWolfgangvonGoethe,RobertSouthey'sThalabatheDestroyer(1801),JohnStagg's"TheVampyre"(1810),PercyByssheShelley's"TheSpectralHorseman"(1810)("Norayellingvampirereekingwithgore")and"Ballad"inSt.Irvyne(1811)aboutareanimatedcorpse,SisterRosa,SamuelTaylorColeridge'sunfinishedChristabelandLordByron'sTheGiaour.[166] Byronwasalsocreditedwiththefirstprosefictionpiececoncernedwithvampires:"TheVampyre"(1819).ThiswasinrealityauthoredbyByron'spersonalphysician,JohnPolidori,whoadaptedanenigmaticfragmentarytaleofhisillustriouspatient,"FragmentofaNovel"(1819),alsoknownas"TheBurial:AFragment".[17][160]Byron'sowndominatingpersonality,mediatedbyhisloverLadyCarolineLambinherunflatteringroman-a-clefGlenarvon(aGothicfantasiabasedonByron'swildlife),wasusedasamodelforPolidori'sundeadprotagonistLordRuthven.TheVampyrewashighlysuccessfulandthemostinfluentialvampireworkoftheearly19thcentury.[167] CarmillabySheridanLeFanu,illustratedbyD.H.Friston,1872. VarneytheVampirewasapopularlandmarkmid-VictorianeragothichorrorstorybyJamesMalcolmRymerandThomasPeckettPrest,whichfirstappearedfrom1845to1847inaseriesofpamphletsgenerallyreferredtoaspennydreadfulsbecauseoftheirinexpensivepriceandtypicallygruesomecontents.[159]Thestorywaspublishedinbookformin1847andrunsto868double-columnedpages.Ithasadistinctlysuspensefulstyle,usingvividimagerytodescribethehorrifyingexploitsofVarney.[164]AnotherimportantadditiontothegenrewasSheridanLeFanu'slesbianvampirestoryCarmilla(1871).LikeVarneybeforeher,thevampiressCarmillaisportrayedinasomewhatsympatheticlightasthecompulsionofherconditionishighlighted.[168] NoefforttodepictvampiresinpopularfictionwasasinfluentialorasdefinitiveasBramStoker'sDracula(1897).[169]Itsportrayalofvampirismasadiseaseofcontagiousdemonicpossession,withitsundertonesofsex,bloodanddeath,struckachordinVictorianEuropewheretuberculosisandsyphiliswerecommon.ThevampirictraitsdescribedinStoker'sworkmergedwithanddominatedfolklorictradition,eventuallyevolvingintothemodernfictionalvampire.[159] DrawingonpastworkssuchasTheVampyreandCarmilla,Stokerbegantoresearchhisnewbookinthelate19thcentury,readingworkssuchasTheLandBeyondtheForest(1888)byEmilyGerardandotherbooksaboutTransylvaniaandvampires.InLondon,acolleaguementionedtohimthestoryofVladŢepeş,the"real-lifeDracula",andStokerimmediatelyincorporatedthisstoryintohisbook.Thefirstchapterofthebookwasomittedwhenitwaspublishedin1897,butitwasreleasedin1914as"Dracula'sGuest".[170]Manyexpertsbelieve,thisdeletedopeningwasbasedontheAustrianprincessEleonorevonSchwarzenberg.[171] Thelatterpartofthe20thcenturysawtheriseofmulti-volumevampireepics.ThefirstofthesewasGothicromancewriterMarilynRoss'sBarnabasCollinsseries(1966–71),looselybasedonthecontemporaryAmericanTVseriesDarkShadows.Italsosetthetrendforseeingvampiresaspoetictragicheroesratherthanasthemoretraditionalembodimentofevil.ThisformulawasfollowedinnovelistAnneRice'shighlypopularandinfluentialVampireChronicles(1976–2003).[172] The21stcenturybroughtmoreexamplesofvampirefiction,suchasJ. R.Ward'sBlackDaggerBrotherhoodseries,andotherhighlypopularvampirebookswhichappealtoteenagersandyoungadults.Suchvampiricparanormalromancenovelsandalliedvampiricchick-litandvampiricoccultdetectivestoriesarearemarkablypopularandever-expandingcontemporarypublishingphenomenon.[173]L. A.Banks'TheVampireHuntressLegendSeries,LaurellK.Hamilton'seroticAnitaBlake:VampireHunterseries,andKimHarrison'sTheHollowsseries,portraythevampireinavarietyofnewperspectives,someofthemunrelatedtotheoriginallegends.VampiresintheTwilightseries(2005–2008)byStephenieMeyerignoretheeffectsofgarlicandcrossesandarenotharmedbysunlight,althoughitdoesrevealtheirsupernaturalstatus.[174]RichelleMeadfurtherdeviatesfromtraditionalvampiresinherVampireAcademyseries(2007–present),basingthenovelsonRomanianlorewithtworacesofvampires,onegoodandoneevil,aswellashalf-vampires.[175] Filmandtelevision Mainarticle:Vampirefilms AscenefromF.W.Murnau'sNosferatu,1922. Consideredoneofthepreeminentfiguresoftheclassichorrorfilm,thevampirehasproventobearichsubjectforthefilmandgamingindustries.DraculaisamajorcharacterinmorefilmsthananyotherbutSherlockHolmes,andmanyearlyfilmswereeitherbasedonthenovelDraculaorcloselyderivedfromit.Theseincludedthe1922silentGermanExpressionisthorrorfilmNosferatu,directedbyF.W.MurnauandfeaturingthefirstfilmportrayalofDracula—althoughnamesandcharacterswereintendedtomimicDracula's,MurnaucouldnotobtainpermissiontodosofromStoker'swidow,andhadtoaltermanyaspectsofthestoryforthefilm.Universal'sDracula(1931),starringBélaLugosiastheCount,wasthefirsttalkingfilmtoportrayDracula.Thedecadesawseveralmorevampirefilms,mostnotablyDracula'sDaughterin1936.[176] CountDraculaasportrayedbyBélaLugosiin1931'sDracula. ThelegendofthevampirecontinuedthroughthefilmindustrywhenDraculawasreincarnatedinthepertinentHammerHorrorseriesoffilms,starringChristopherLeeastheCount.Thesuccessful1958DraculastarringLeewasfollowedbysevensequels.LeereturnedasDraculainallbuttwooftheseandbecamewellknownintherole.[177]Bythe1970s,vampiresinfilmshaddiversifiedwithworkssuchasCountYorga,Vampire(1970),anAfricanCountin1972'sBlacula,theBBC'sCountDraculafeaturingFrenchactorLouisJourdanasDraculaandFrankFinlayasAbrahamVanHelsing,andaNosferatu-likevampirein1979'sSalem'sLot,andaremakeofNosferatuitself,titledNosferatutheVampyrewithKlausKinskithesameyear.Severalfilmsfeaturedthecharacterizationofafemale,oftenlesbian,vampiresuchasHammerHorror'sTheVampireLovers(1970),basedonCarmilla,thoughtheplotlinesstillrevolvedaroundacentralevilvampirecharacter.[177] 1960stelevision'sDarkShadows,withJonathanFrid'sBarnabasCollinsvampirecharacter. TheGothicsoapoperaDarkShadows,onAmericantelevisionfrom1966to1971andproducedbyDanCurtis,featuredthevampirecharacterBarnabasCollins,portrayedbyCanadianactorJonathanFrid,whichprovedpartlyresponsibleformakingtheseriesoneofthemostpopularofitstype,amassingatotalof1,225episodesinitsnearlyfive-yearrun.ThepilotforthelaterDanCurtis1972televisionseriesKolchak:TheNightStalkerrevolvedaroundreporterCarlKolchakhuntingavampireontheLasVegasStrip.Laterfilmsshowedmorediversityinplotline,withsomefocusingonthevampire-hunter,suchasBladeintheMarvelComics'BladefilmsandthefilmBuffytheVampireSlayer.[159]Buffy,releasedin1992,foreshadowedavampiricpresenceontelevision,withitsadaptationtoalong-runninghitseriesofthesamenameanditsspin-offAngel.Stillothersshowedthevampireasaprotagonist,suchas1983'sTheHunger,1994'sInterviewwiththeVampireanditsindirectsequelofsortsQueenoftheDamned,andthe2007seriesMoonlight.The1992filmBramStoker'sDraculabecamethethen-highestgrossingvampirefilmever.[178] Inhisdocumentary"VampirePrincess"(2007)theinvestigativeAustrianauthoranddirectorKlausT.Steindldiscoveredin2007thehistoricalinspirationforBramStoker'slegendaryDraculacharacter(seealsoLiterature-BramStoker:Dracula'sGuest[170]):"Manyexpertsbelieve,thedeletedopeningwasactuallybasedonawoman.Archaeologists,historians,andforensicscientistsrevisitthedaysofvampirehysteriaintheeighteenth-centuryCzechRepublicandre-opentheunholygraveofdarkprincessEleonorevonSchwarzenberg.Theyuncoverherstory,onceburiedandlongforgotten,nowraisedfromthedead."[171] ThisincreaseofinterestinvampiricplotlinesledtothevampirebeingdepictedinfilmssuchasUnderworldandVanHelsing,theRussianNightWatchandaTVminiseriesremakeofSalem'sLot,bothfrom2004.TheseriesBloodTiespremieredonLifetimeTelevisionin2007,featuringacharacterportrayedasHenryFitzroy,anillegitimate-son-of-Henry-VIII-of-England-turned-vampire,inmodern-dayToronto,withafemaleformerTorontodetectiveinthestarringrole.A2008seriesfromHBO,entitledTrueBlood,givesaSouthernGothictakeonthevampiretheme.[174] In2008theBBCThreeseriesBeingHumanbecamepopularinBritain.Itfeaturedanunconventionaltrioofavampire,awerewolfandaghostwhoaresharingaflatinBristol.[179][180]Anotherpopularvampire-relatedshowisCW'sTheVampireDiaries.Thecontinuingpopularityofthevampirethemehasbeenascribedtoacombinationoftwofactors:therepresentationofsexualityandtheperennialdreadofmortality.[181] Games Mainarticle:Vampiresingames Therole-playinggameVampire:TheMasqueradehasbeeninfluentialuponmodernvampirefictionandelementsofitsterminology,suchasembraceandsire,appearincontemporaryfiction.[159]PopularvideogamesaboutvampiresincludeCastlevania,whichisanextensionoftheoriginalBramStokernovelDracula,andLegacyofKain.[182]Therole-playinggameDungeons&Dragonsfeaturesvampires.[183] References Notes ^abcSilver,Alain;Ursini,James(1997).TheVampireFilm:FromNosferatutoInterviewwiththeVampire.NewYorkCity:LimelightEditions.pp. 22–23.ISBN 978-0-87910-395-8. ^""DearCecil"columnfromstraightdope.com".7May1999.Archivedfromtheoriginalon5February2013.Retrieved22May2017. ^Lane,Nick(16December2002)."BorntothePurple:theStoryofPorphyria".ScientificAmerican.NewYorkCity:SpringerNature.Archivedfromtheoriginalon26January2017.Retrieved26January2017. ^Mutch,Deborah,ed.(2013).TheModernVampireandHumanIdentity.PalgraveMacmillan.p. 3.ISBN 978-1-349-35069-8. 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Wright,Dudley(1973)[1914].TheBookofVampires.NewYork:CausewayBooks.ISBN 978-0-88356-007-5.(originallypublishedasVampireandVampirism;alsopublishedasTheHistoryofVampires) Externallinks LibraryresourcesaboutVampire Resourcesinyourlibrary Resourcesinotherlibraries ThedictionarydefinitionofvampireatWiktionary MediarelatedtoVampireatWikimediaCommons QuotationsrelatedtoVampireatWikiquote WorksrelatedtoVampireatWikisource AuthoritycontrolGeneral IntegratedAuthorityFile(Germany) Nationallibraries France(data) UnitedStates Japan vteHorrorfiction Speculativefiction Media Comics Films Magazines Podcasts Televisionprograms Videogames Types Art Body Comedy Zombie Cosmic Darkfantasy Darkromanticism Splatterpunk Erotic guro Ghost Giallo Gothic American Southern SouthernOntario Suburban Tasmanian Technoir Urban Japanese Korean Lovecraftian Monsters Jiangshi Vampire Werewolf Occultdetective Organtransplantation Psychological Survival Techno Weirdfiction Weirdmenace WeirdWest Zombieapocalypse Monsters Demons Devils Ghouls Evilclowns Extraterrestrials Kaiju Seamonster Undead Death Ghosts Mummies Skeletons Vampires Zombies Werewolves Witches Relatedgenres Blackcomedy Fantastique Fantasyfiction Mystery Paranormal Supernatural Thriller Sciencefiction Other GrandGuignol Writers Conventions LGBTthemes characters Macabre Horroricon Horrorhost Related Pulpmagazine Monstererotica InternetSpeculativeFictionDatabase Listofhighest-grossinghorrorfilms Category Portal vteGothsubcultureAssociatedmusic Coldwave Darkwave Etherealwave Deathrock Gothicrock Regionalscenes CamdenTown Chicago Cleveland SingaporeDarkAlternativeMovement Toronto Notableclubnights FClub(1977–1982) LePhonographique(1979–2005) Batcave(1982–1985) DeathGuild(1993–) Notableevents Wave-Gotik-Treffen M'eraLunaFestival DropDeadFestival LumousGothicFestival WhitbyGothWeekend Convergence(gothfestival) BatsDayintheFunPark Listofgothicfestivals Artandfashion Art Fashion LipService GothicBeauty Filmandliterature TheAddamsFamily TheGoodbyeFamily TheMunsters Literature EdgarAllanPoe TheCrow TheSandman MyImmortal Notablefigures RobertSmith PeterMurphy SiouxsieSioux CassandraPeterson/Elvira IanCurtis AndrewEldritch NickCave EvaO DinahCancer MonicaRichards LisaHammer GitaneDeMone TimBurton Notablebands TheCure Bauhaus SiouxsieandtheBanshees JoyDivision TheSistersofMercy TheDamned AlienSexFiend DeadCanDance Seealso GotherThanThou SuicideofNicolaAnnRaphael MurderofSophieLancaster Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vampire&oldid=1052355424" Categories:VampiresShapeshiftingHiddencategories:CS1German-languagesources(de)CS1French-languagesources(fr)CS1Russian-languagesources(ru)ArticleswithBulgarian-languagesources(bg)CS1usesRussian-languagescript(ru)CS1Spanish-languagesources(es)CS1Albanian-languagesources(sq)CS1:abbreviatedyearrangeCS1:Julian–GregorianuncertaintyCS1Romanian-languagesources(ro)CS1:longvolumevalueWebarchivetemplatewaybacklinksCS1Swedish-languagesources(sv)ArticleswithshortdescriptionShortdescriptionisdifferentfromWikidataFeaturedarticlesWikipediaindefinitelysemi-protectedpagesUsedmydatesfromMarch2021UseBritishEnglishfromMay2017PagesusingmultipleimagewithmanualscaledimagesCS1usesSerbian-languagescript(sr)CS1Serbian-languagesources(sr)CommonslinkfromWikidataArticleswithGNDidentifiersArticleswithBNFidentifiersArticleswithLCCNidentifiersArticleswithNDLidentifiers Navigationmenu Personaltools NotloggedinTalkContributionsCreateaccountLogin Namespaces ArticleTalk Variants expanded collapsed Views ReadViewsourceViewhistory More expanded collapsed Search Navigation MainpageContentsCurrenteventsRandomarticleAboutWikipediaContactusDonate Contribute HelpLearntoeditCommunityportalRecentchangesUploadfile Tools WhatlinkshereRelatedchangesUploadfileSpecialpagesPermanentlinkPageinformationCitethispageWikidataitem Print/export DownloadasPDFPrintableversion Inotherprojects WikimediaCommonsWikiquote Languages AfrikaansАҧсшәаالعربيةArmãneashtiAsturianuAzərbaycancaবাংলাБеларускаяБеларуская(тарашкевіца)Българскиབོད་ཡིགBosanskiBrezhonegБуряадCatalàČeštinaCymraegDanskDeutschEestiΕλληνικάEspañolEsperantoEuskaraفارسیFrançaisFryskGaeilgeGàidhligGalego한국어Հայերենहिन्दीHrvatskiBahasaIndonesiaÍslenskaItalianoעבריתJawaಕನ್ನಡქართულიKiswahiliLatinaLatviešuLëtzebuergeschLietuviųLinguaFrancaNovaMagyarМакедонскиമലയാളംBahasaMelayuNāhuatlNederlandsनेपाली日本語NorskbokmålNorsknynorskOccitanOʻzbekcha/ўзбекчаਪੰਜਾਬੀپنجابیPolskiPortuguêsRomânăРусскийScotsShqipසිංහලSimpleEnglishسنڌيSlovenčinaSlovenščinaکوردیСрпски/srpskiSrpskohrvatski/српскохрватскиSuomiSvenskaTagalogதமிழ்TaqbaylitతెలుగుไทยTürkçeУкраїнськаاردوTiếngViệtWinaray吴语粵語中文 Editlinks