Lion - Wikipedia

The lion (Panthera leo) is a large cat of the genus Panthera native to Africa and India. It has a muscular, deep-chested body, short, rounded head, ... Lion FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Forotheruses,seeLion(disambiguation). LargecatnativetoAfricaandAsia LionTemporalrange:Pleistocene–Present PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N ↓ MalelioninOkonjima,Namibia Female(lioness)inOkonjima Conservationstatus Vulnerable (IUCN3.1)[2] CITESAppendixII (CITES)[2][note1] Scientificclassification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Carnivora Suborder: Feliformia Family: Felidae Subfamily: Pantherinae Genus: Panthera Species: P. leo[1] Binomialname Pantheraleo[1](Linnaeus,1758)[3] Subspecies P.l.leo P.l.melanochaita P.l.fossilis P.l.sinhaleyus HistoricalandpresentdistributionofthelioninAfrica,AsiaandEurope Thelion(Pantheraleo)isalargecatofthegenusPantheranativetoAfricaandIndia.Ithasamuscular,deep-chestedbody,short,roundedhead,roundears,andahairytuftattheendofitstail.Itissexuallydimorphic;adultmalelionsarelargerthanfemalesandhaveaprominentmane.Itisasocialspecies,forminggroupscalledprides.Alion'sprideconsistsofafewadultmales,relatedfemales,andcubs.Groupsoffemalelionsusuallyhunttogether,preyingmostlyonlargeungulates.Thelionisanapexandkeystonepredator;althoughsomelionsscavengewhenopportunitiesoccurandhavebeenknowntohunthumans,thespeciestypicallydoesnot. Thelioninhabitsgrasslands,savannasandshrublands.Itisusuallymorediurnalthanotherwildcats,butwhenpersecuted,itadaptstobeingactiveatnightandattwilight.DuringtheNeolithicperiod,thelionrangedthroughoutAfrica,SoutheastEurope,theCaucasus,andWesternandSouthAsia,butithasbeenreducedtofragmentedpopulationsinsub-SaharanAfricaandonepopulationinwesternIndia.IthasbeenlistedasVulnerableontheIUCNRedListsince1996becausepopulationsinAfricancountrieshavedeclinedbyabout43%sincetheearly1990s.Lionpopulationsareuntenableoutsidedesignatedprotectedareas.Althoughthecauseofthedeclineisnotfullyunderstood,habitatlossandconflictswithhumansarethegreatestcausesforconcern. Oneofthemostwidelyrecognisedanimalsymbolsinhumanculture,thelionhasbeenextensivelydepictedinsculpturesandpaintings,onnationalflags,andincontemporaryfilmsandliterature.LionshavebeenkeptinmenageriessincethetimeoftheRomanEmpireandhavebeenakeyspeciessoughtforexhibitioninzoologicalgardensacrosstheworldsincethelate18thcentury.CulturaldepictionsoflionswereprominentinAncientEgypt,anddepictionshaveoccurredinvirtuallyallancientandmedievalculturesinthelion'shistoricandcurrentrange. Contents 1Etymology 2Taxonomy 2.1Subspecies 2.2Fossilrecords 2.3Evolution 2.4Hybrids 3Description 3.1Size 3.2Mane 3.3Colourvariation 4Distributionandhabitat 4.1Historicalrange 5Behaviourandecology 5.1Grouporganisation 5.2Huntinganddiet 5.2.1Predatorcompetition 5.3Reproductionandlifecycle 5.4Health 5.5Communication 6Conservation 6.1InAfrica 6.2InAsia 6.3Captivebreeding 7Interactionswithhumans 7.1Inzoosandcircuses 7.2Huntingandgames 7.3Man-eating 8Culturalsignificance 8.1Africa 8.2Easternworld 8.3Westernworld 9Seealso 10References 10.1Books 11Notes 12Externallinks Etymology Theword'lion'isderivedfromLatin:leo[4]andAncientGreek:λέων(leon).[5]Thewordlavi(Hebrew:לָבִיא)mayalsoberelated.[6]ThegenericnamePantheraistraceabletotheclassicalLatinword'panthēra'andtheancientGreekwordπάνθηρ'panther'.[7]PantheraisphoneticallysimilartotheSanskritwordपाण्डरpând-arameaning'paleyellow,whitish,white'.[8] Taxonomy Theuppercladogramisbasedonthe2006study,[9][10]theloweroneonthe2010[11]and2011[12]studies. FelisleowasthescientificnameusedbyCarlLinnaeusin1758,whodescribedthelioninhisworkSystemaNaturae.[3]ThegenusnamePantherawascoinedbyLorenzOkenin1816.[13]Betweenthemid-18thandmid-20thcenturies,26lionspecimensweredescribedandproposedassubspecies,ofwhich11wererecognisedasvalidin2005.[1]Theyweredistinguishedmostlybythesizeandcolouroftheirmanesandskins.[14] Subspecies Rangemapshowingdistributionofsubspeciesandclades Inthe19thand20thcenturies,severalliontypespecimensweredescribedandproposedassubspecies,withaboutadozenrecognisedasvalidtaxauntil2017.[1] Between2008and2016,IUCNRedListassessorsusedonlytwosubspecificnames:P.l.leoforAfricanlionpopulations,andP.l.persicafortheAsiaticlionpopulation.[2][15][16]In2017,theCatClassificationTaskForceoftheCatSpecialistGrouprevisedliontaxonomy,andrecognisestwosubspeciesbasedonresultsofseveralphylogeographicstudiesonlionevolution,namely:[17] P.l.leo(Linnaeus,1758)−thenominatelionsubspeciesincludestheAsiaticlion,theregionallyextinctBarbarylion,andlionpopulationsinWestandnorthernpartsofCentralAfrica.[17]SynonymsincludeP.l.persica(Meyer,1826),P.l.senegalensis(Meyer,1826),P.l.kamptzi(Matschie,1900),andP.l.azandica(Allen,1924).[1]Multipleauthorsreferredtoitas'northernlion'and'northernsubspecies'.[18][19] P.l.melanochaita(Smith,1842)−includestheextinctCapelionandlionpopulationsinEastandSouthernAfricanregions.[17]SynonymsincludeP.l.somaliensis(Noack1891),P.l.massaica(Neumann,1900),P.l.sabakiensis(Lönnberg,1910),P.l.bleyenberghi(Lönnberg,1914),P.l.roosevelti(Heller,1914),P.l.nyanzae(Heller,1914),P.l.hollisteri(Allen,1924),P.l.krugeri(Roberts,1929),P.l.vernayi(Roberts,1948),andP.l.webbiensis(Zukowsky,1964).[1][14]Ithasbeenreferredtoas'southernsubspecies'and'southernlion'.[19] However,thereseemstobesomedegreeofoverlapbetweenbothgroupsinnorthernCentralAfrica.DNAanalysisfromamorerecentstudyindicates,thatCentralAfricanlionsarederivedfrombothnorthernandsouthernlions,astheyclusterwithP.leoleoinmtDNA-basedphylogenieswhereastheirgenomicDNAindicatesacloserrelationshipwithP.leomelanochaita.[20] LionsamplesfromsomepartsoftheEthiopianHighlandsclustergeneticallywiththosefromCameroonandChad,whilelionsfromotherareasofEthiopiaclusterwithsamplesfromEastAfrica.ResearchersthereforeassumeEthiopiaisacontactzonebetweenthetwosubspecies.[21] Genome-widedataofawild-bornhistoricallionsamplefromSudanshowedthatitclusteredwithP.l.leoinmtDNA-basedphylogenies,butwithahighaffinitytoP.l.melanochaita.ThisresultsuggestedthatthetaxonomicpositionoflionsinCentralAfricamayrequirerevision.[22] Fossilrecords SkullofanAmericanlionondisplayattheNationalMuseumofNaturalHistory Otherlionsubspeciesorsisterspeciestothemodernlionexistedinprehistorictimes:[23] P.l.sinhaleyuswasafossilcarnassialexcavatedinSriLanka,whichwasattributedtoalion.Itisthoughttohavebecomeextinctaround39,000yearsago.[24] P.leofossiliswaslargerthanthemodernlionandlivedintheMiddlePleistocene.BonefragmentswereexcavatedincavesintheUnitedKingdom,Germany,ItalyandCzechRepublic.[25][26] P.spelaea,orthecavelion,livedinEurasiaandBeringiaduringtheLatePleistocene.Itbecameextinctduetoclimatewarmingorhumanexpansionlatestby11,900yearsago.[27]BonefragmentsexcavatedinEuropean,NorthAsian,CanadianandAlaskancavesindicatethatitrangedfromEuropeacrossSiberiaintowesternAlaska.[28]ItlikelyderivedfromP.fossilis,[29]andwasgeneticallyisolatedandhighlydistinctfromthemodernlioninAfricaandEurasia.[30][29]ItisdepictedinPaleolithiccavepaintings,ivorycarvings,andclaybusts.[31] P.atrox,ortheAmericanlion,rangedintheAmericasfromCanadatopossiblyPatagonia.[32]ItarosewhenacavelionpopulationinBeringiabecameisolatedsouthoftheCordilleranIceSheetabout370,000yearsago.[33][34]AfossilfromEdmontondatesto11,355±55yearsago.[35] Evolution redPantheraspelaeablueP.atroxgreenP.leoMaximalrangeofthemodernlionanditsprehistoricrelativesinthelatePleistocene ThePantheralineageisestimatedtohavegeneticallydivergedfromthecommonancestoroftheFelidaearound9.32 to 4.47millionyearsagoto11.75 to 0.97millionyearsago,[9][36][37] andthegeographicoriginofthegenusismostlikelynorthernCentralAsia.[38] Resultsofanalysesdifferinthephylogeneticrelationshipofthelion;itwasthoughttoformasistergroupwiththejaguar(P.onca)thatdiverged3.46 to 1.22millionyearsago,[9]butalsowiththeleopard(P.pardus)thatdiverged3.1 to 1.95millionyearsago[11][12]to4.32 to 0.02millionyearsago.Hybridisationbetweenlionandsnowleopard(P.uncia)ancestorspossiblycontinueduntilabout2.1millionyearsago.[37] Thelion-leopardcladewasdistributedintheAsianandAfricanPalearcticsinceatleasttheearlyPliocene.[38]TheearliestfossilsrecognisableaslionswerefoundatOlduvaiGorgeinTanzaniaandareestimatedtobeupto2millionyearsold.[36] Estimatesforthedivergencetimeofthemodernandcavelionlineagesrangefrom529,000to392,000yearsagobasedonmutationratepergenerationtimeofthemodernlion.Thereisnoevidenceforgeneflowbetweenthetwolineages,indicatingthattheydidnotsharethesamegeographicarea.[22]TheEurasianandAmericancavelionsbecameextinctattheendofthelastglacialperiodwithoutmitochondrialdescendantsonothercontinents.[30][39][40]ThemodernlionwasprobablywidelydistributedinAfricaduringtheMiddlePleistoceneandstartedtodivergeinsub-SaharanAfricaduringtheLatePleistocene.LionpopulationsinEastandSouthernAfricabecameseparatedfrompopulationsinWestandNorthAfricawhentheequatorialrainforestexpanded183,500to81,800yearsago.[41] Theysharedacommonancestorprobablybetween98,000and52,000yearsago.[22] DuetotheexpansionoftheSaharabetween83,100and26,600yearsago,lionpopulationsinWestandNorthAfricabecameseparated.Astherainforestdecreasedandthusgaverisetomoreopenhabitats,lionsmovedfromWesttoCentralAfrica.LionsfromNorthAfricadispersedtosouthernEuropeandAsiabetween38,800and8,300yearsago.[41] ExtinctionoflionsinsouthernEurope,NorthAfricaandtheMiddleEastinterruptedgeneflowbetweenlionpopulationsinAsiaandAfrica.GeneticevidencerevealednumerousmutationsinlionsamplesfromEastandSouthernAfrica,whichindicatesthatthisgrouphasalongerevolutionaryhistorythangeneticallylessdiverselionsamplesfromAsiaandWestandCentralAfrica.[42] Awholegenome-widesequenceoflionsamplesshowedthatsamplesfromWestAfricasharedalleleswithsamplesfromSouthernAfrica,andsamplesfromCentralAfricasharedalleleswithsamplesfromAsia.ThisphenomenonindicatesthatCentralAfricawasameltingpotoflionpopulationsaftertheyhadbecomeisolated,possiblymigratingthroughcorridorsintheNileBasinduringtheearlyHolocene.[22] Hybrids Furtherinformation:Pantherahybrid Inzoos,lionshavebeenbredwithtigerstocreatehybridsforthecuriosityofvisitorsorforscientificpurpose.[43][44]Theligerisbiggerthanalionandatiger,whereasmosttigonsarerelativelysmallcomparedtotheirparentsbecauseofreciprocalgeneeffects.[45][46]Theleoponisahybridbetweenalionandleopard.[47] Description Atuftattheendofthetailisadistinctcharacteristicofthelion.Skeleton Thelionisamuscular,deep-chestedcatwithashort,roundedhead,areducedneckandroundears.Itsfurvariesincolourfromlightbufftosilverygrey,yellowishredanddarkbrown.Thecoloursoftheunderpartsaregenerallylighter.Anew-bornlionhasdarkspots,whichfadeasthecubreachesadulthood,althoughfaintspotsoftenmaystillbeseenonthelegsandunderparts.Thelionistheonlymemberofthecatfamilythatdisplaysobvioussexualdimorphism.Maleshavebroaderheadsandaprominentmanethatgrowsdownwardsandbackwardscoveringmostofthehead,neck,shoulders,andchest.Themaneistypicallybrownishandtingedwithyellow,rustandblackhairs.[48][49] Thetailofalllionsendsinadark,hairytuftthatinsomelionsconcealsanapproximately5 mm(0.20 in)-long,hard"spine"or"spur"thatisformedfromthefinal,fusedsectionsoftailbone.Thefunctionsofthespurareunknown.Thetuftisabsentatbirthanddevelopsataround5+1⁄2monthsofage.Itisreadilyidentifiablebytheageofsevenmonths.[50] Ofthelivingfelidspecies,thelionisrivaledonlybythetigerinlength,weight,andheightattheshoulder.[51]Itsskullisverysimilartothatofthetiger,althoughthefrontalregionisusuallymoredepressedandflattened,andhasaslightlyshorterpostorbitalregionandbroadernasalopeningsthanthoseofthetiger.Duetotheamountofskullvariationinthetwospecies,usuallyonlythestructureofthelowerjawcanbeusedasareliableindicatorofspecies.[52][53] Skeletalmusclesofthelionmakeup58.8%ofitsbodyweightandrepresentsthehighestpercentageofmusclesamongmammals.[54][55] Size Thesizeandweightofadultlionsvariesacrossglobalrangeandhabitats.[56][57][58][59]AccountsofafewindividualsthatwerelargerthanaverageexistfromAfricaandIndia.[48][60][61][62] Average Femalelions Malelions Head-and-bodylength 160–184 cm(63–72 in)[63] 184–208 cm(72–82 in)[63] Taillength 72–89.5 cm(28.3–35.2 in)[63] 82.5–93.5 cm(32.5–36.8 in)[63] Weight 118.37–143.52 kg(261.0–316.4 lb)inSouthernAfrica,[56]119.5 kg(263 lb)inEastAfrica,[56]110–120 kg(240–260 lb)inIndia[57] 186.55–225 kg(411.3–496.0 lb)inSouthernAfrica,[56]174.9 kg(386 lb)inEastAfrica,[56]160–190 kg(350–420 lb)inIndia[57] Mane Asix-year-oldmalewithalargemaneatPhindaPrivateGameReserve,SouthAfricaMalewithshortmaneatPendjariNationalPark,Benin,WestAfrica Themalelion'smaneisthemostrecognisablefeatureofthespecies.[14]Itmayhaveevolvedaround320,000–190,000yearsago.[64]Itstartsgrowingwhenlionsareaboutayearold.Manecolourvariesanddarkenswithage;researchshowsitscolourandsizeareinfluencedbyenvironmentalfactorssuchasaverageambienttemperature.Manelengthapparentlysignalsfightingsuccessinmale–malerelationships;darker-manedindividualsmayhavelongerreproductivelivesandhigheroffspringsurvival,althoughtheysufferinthehottestmonthsoftheyear.Thepresence,absence,colourandsizeofthemaneareassociatedwithgeneticprecondition,sexualmaturity,climateandtestosteroneproduction;theruleofthumbisthatadarker,fullermaneindicatesahealthieranimal.InSerengetiNationalPark,femalelionsfavourmaleswithdense,darkmanesasmates.Malelionsusuallyaimforthebacksorhindquartersofrivals,ratherthantheirnecks.[65][66]CoolambienttemperatureinEuropeanandNorthAmericanzoosmayresultinaheaviermane.[67]AsiaticlionsusuallyhavesparsermanesthanaverageAfricanlions.[68] AlmostallmalelionsinPendjariNationalParkareeithermanelessorhaveveryshortmanes.[69]ManelesslionshavealsobeenreportedinSenegal,inSudan'sDinderNationalParkandinTsavoEastNationalPark,Kenya.[70]TheoriginalmalewhitelionfromTimbavatiinSouthAfricawasalsomaneless.Thehormonetestosteronehasbeenlinkedtomanegrowth;castratedlionsoftenhavelittletonomanebecausetheremovalofthegonadsinhibitstestosteroneproduction.[71]IncreasedtestosteronemaybethecauseofmanedlionessesreportedinnorthernBotswana.[72] Colourvariation Furtherinformation:Whitelion Thewhitelionisararemorphwithageneticconditioncalledleucismwhichiscausedbyadoublerecessiveallele.Itisnotalbino;ithasnormalpigmentationintheeyesandskin.WhitelionshaveoccasionallybeenencounteredinandaroundKrugerNationalParkandtheadjacentTimbavatiPrivateGameReserveineasternSouthAfrica.Theywereremovedfromthewildinthe1970s,thusdecreasingthewhiteliongenepool.Nevertheless,17birthshavebeenrecordedinfivepridesbetween2007and2015.[73]Whitelionsareselectedforbreedingincaptivity.[74]TheyhavereportedlybeenbredincampsinSouthAfricaforuseastrophiestobekilledduringcannedhunts.[75] Distributionandhabitat LioninGirNationalPark Africanlionsliveinscatteredpopulationsacrosssub-SaharanAfrica.Thelionprefersgrassyplainsandsavannahs,scrubborderingriversandopenwoodlandswithbushes.Itrarelyentersclosedforests.OnMountElgon,thelionhasbeenrecordeduptoanelevationof3,600 m(11,800 ft)andclosetothesnowlineonMountKenya.[48]Savannahswithanannualrainfallof300to1,500 mm(12to59 in)makeupthemajorityoflionhabitatinAfrica,estimatedat3,390,821 km2(1,309,203 sq mi)atmost;butremnantpopulationsarealsopresentintropicalmoistforestsinWestAfricaandmontaneforestsinEastAfrica.[76]TheAsiaticlionnowsurvivesonlyinandaroundGirNationalParkinGujarat,westernIndia.Itshabitatisamixtureofdrysavannahforestandverydry,deciduousscrubforest.[15] Historicalrange InAfrica,therangeofthelionoriginallyspannedmostofthecentralAfricanrainforestzoneandtheSaharadesert.[77]Inthe1960s,itbecameextinctinNorthAfrica,exceptinthesouthernpartofSudan.[78][76][79] InsouthernEuropeandAsia,theliononcerangedinregionswhereclimaticconditionssupportedanabundanceofprey.[80]InGreece,itwascommonasreportedbyHerodotusin480BC;itwasconsideredrareby300BCandextirpatedbyAD100.[48]ItwaspresentintheCaucasusuntilthe10thcentury.[53]ItlivedinPalestineuntiltheMiddleAges,andinSouthwestAsiauntilthelate19thcentury.Bythelate19thcentury,ithadbeenextirpatedinmostofTurkey.[81]ThelastlivelioninIranwassightedin1942about65 km(40 mi)northwestofDezful,[82]althoughthecorpseofalionesswasfoundonthebanksoftheKarunriverinKhūzestānProvincein1944.[83]ItoncerangedfromSindandPunjabinPakistantoBengalandtheNarmadaRiverincentralIndia.[84] Behaviourandecology Lionsspendmuchoftheirtimeresting;theyareinactiveforabouttwentyhoursperday.[85]Althoughlionscanbeactiveatanytime,theiractivitygenerallypeaksafterduskwithaperiodofsocialising,groominganddefecating.Intermittentburstsofactivitycontinueuntildawn,whenhuntingmostoftentakesplace.Theyspendanaverageoftwohoursadaywalkingandfiftyminuteseating.[86] Grouporganisation LionprideinEtoshaNationalParkAlioness(left)andtwomalesinMasaiMara Thelionisthemostsocialofallwildfelidspecies,livingingroupsofrelatedindividualswiththeiroffspring.Suchagroupiscalleda"pride".Groupsofmalelionsarecalled"coalitions".[87]Femalesformthestablesocialunitinaprideanddonottolerateoutsidefemales.[88]Membershipchangesonlywiththebirthsanddeathsoflionesses,[89]althoughsomefemalesleaveandbecomenomadic.[90]Theaverageprideconsistsofaround15lions,includingseveraladultfemalesanduptofourmalesandtheircubsofbothsexes.Largeprides,consistingofupto30individuals,havebeenobserved.[91]ThesoleexceptiontothispatternistheTsavolionpridethatalwayshasjustoneadultmale.[92]Malecubsareexcludedfromtheirmaternalpridewhentheyreachmaturityataroundtwoorthreeyearsofage.[90] Somelionsare"nomads"thatrangewidelyandmovearoundsporadically,eitherinpairsoralone.[87]Pairsaremorefrequentamongrelatedmaleswhohavebeenexcludedfromtheirbirthpride.Alionmayswitchlifestyles;nomadscanbecomeresidentsandviceversa.[93]Interactionsbetweenpridesandnomadstendtobehostile,althoughpridefemalesinestrusallownomadicmalestoapproachthem.[94]Malesspendyearsinanomadicphasebeforegainingresidenceinapride.[95]AstudyundertakenintheSerengetiNationalParkrevealedthatnomadiccoalitionsgainresidencyatbetween3.5and7.3yearsofage.[96]InKrugerNationalPark,dispersingmalelionsmovemorethan25 km(16 mi)awayfromtheirnatalprideinsearchoftheirownterritory.Femalelionsstayclosertotheirnatalpride.Therefore,femalelionsinanareaaremorecloselyrelatedtoeachotherthanmalelionsinthesamearea.[97] Theareaoccupiedbyaprideiscalleda"pridearea"whereasthatoccupiedbyanomadisa"range".[87]Malesassociatedwithapridetendtostayonthefringes,patrollingtheirterritory.Thereasonsforthedevelopmentofsocialityinlionesses—themostpronouncedinanycatspecies—arethesubjectofmuchdebate.Increasedhuntingsuccessappearstobeanobviousreason,butthisisuncertainuponexamination;coordinatedhuntingallowsformoresuccessfulpredationbutalsoensuresnon-huntingmembersreducepercapitacalorificintake.Somefemales,however,takearoleraisingcubsthatmaybeleftaloneforextendedperiods.Membersofthepridetendtoregularlyplaythesameroleinhuntsandhonetheirskills.Thehealthofthehuntersistheprimaryneedforthesurvivalofthepride;huntersarethefirsttoconsumethepreyatthesiteitistaken.Otherbenefitsincludepossiblekinselection;sharingfoodwithinthefamily;protectingtheyoung,maintainingterritoryandindividualinsuranceagainstinjuryandhunger.[60] Bothmalesandfemalesdefendtheprideagainstintruders,butthemalelionisbetter-suitedforthispurposeduetoitsstockier,morepowerfulbuild.Someindividualsconsistentlyleadthedefenceagainstintruders,whileotherslagbehind.[98]Lionstendtoassumespecificrolesinthepride;slower-movingindividualsmayprovideothervaluableservicestothegroup.[99]Alternatively,theremayberewardsassociatedwithbeingaleaderthatfendsoffintruders;therankoflionessesintheprideisreflectedintheseresponses.[100]Themaleormalesassociatedwiththepridemustdefendtheirrelationshipwiththepridefromoutsidemaleswhomayattempttousurpthem.[93] Asiaticlionpridesdifferingroupcomposition.MaleAsiaticlionsaresolitaryorassociatewithuptothreemales,formingaloosepridewhilefemalesassociatewithupto12otherfemales,formingastrongerpridetogetherwiththeircubs.Femaleandmalelionsassociateonlywhenmating.[101]Coalitionsofmalesholdterritoryforalongertimethansinglelions.Malesincoalitionsofthreeorfourindividualsexhibitapronouncedhierarchy,inwhichonemaledominatestheothersandmatesmorefrequently.[102] Huntinganddiet FourlionessescatchingabuffalointheSerengetiAskeletalmountofalionattackingacommoneland,ondisplayatTheMuseumofOsteology Thelionisageneralisthypercarnivore[103]andisconsideredtobebothanapexandkeystonepredatorduetoitswidepreyspectrum.[104]Itspreyconsistsmainlyofmammals,particularlyungulatesweighing190–550 kg(420–1,210 lb)withapreferenceforbluewildebeest,plainszebra,Africanbuffalo,gemsbokandgiraffe.Lionsalsohuntcommonwarthogdependingonavailability,althoughthespeciesisbelowthepreferredweightrange.[105]InIndia,sambardeerandchitalarethemostcommonlyrecordedwildprey,[49][105][106]whiledomesticlivestockmaycontributesignificantlytotheirdiet.[106]Theyusuallyavoidfullygrownadultelephants,rhinocerosesandhippopotamusandsmallpreylikedik-dik,hyrax,hareandmonkey.[105][107]Unusualpreyincludeporcupinesandsmallreptiles.Lionskillotherpredatorssuchasleopard,cheetahandspottedhyenabutseldomconsumethem.[108] Younglionsfirstdisplaystalkingbehaviourataroundthreemonthsofage,althoughtheydonotparticipateinhuntinguntiltheyarealmostayearoldandbegintohunteffectivelywhennearingtheageoftwo.[109]Singlelionsarecapableofbringingdownzebraandwildebeest,whilelargerpreylikebuffaloandgiraffeareriskier.[93] InChobeNationalPark,largeprideshavebeenobservedhuntingAfricanbushelephantsuptoaround15yearsoldinexceptionalcases,withthevictimsbeingcalves,juveniles,andevensubadults.[110][111]Intypicalhunts,eachlionesshasafavouredpositioninthegroup,eitherstalkingpreyonthe"wing",thenattacking,ormovingasmallerdistanceinthecentreofthegroupandcapturingpreyfleeingfromotherlionesses.Malesattachedtopridesdonotusuallyparticipateingrouphunting.[112]Someevidencesuggests,however,thatmalesarejustassuccessfulasfemales;theyaretypicallysolohunterswhoambushpreyinsmallbushland.[113] Lionsarenotparticularlyknownfortheirstamina;forinstance,alioness'heartcomprisesonly0.57%ofherbodyweightandamale'sisabout0.45%ofhisbodyweight,whereasahyena'sheartcomprisesalmost1%ofitsbodyweight.[114]Thus,lionsrunquicklyonlyinshortbursts[115]andneedtobeclosetotheirpreybeforestartingtheattack.Theytakeadvantageoffactorsthatreducevisibility;manykillstakeplacenearsomeformofcoveroratnight.[116]Thelion'sattackisshortandpowerful;theyattempttocatchpreywithafastrushandfinalleap.Theyusuallypullitdownbytherumpandkillbyastranglingbitetothethroat.Theyalsokillpreybyenclosingitsmouthandnostrilsintheirjaws.[117] Lionstypicallyconsumepreyatthelocationofthehuntbutsometimesdraglargepreyintocover.[118]Theytendtosquabbleoverkills,particularlythemales.Cubssuffermostwhenfoodisscarcebutotherwiseallpridememberseattheirfill,includingoldandcrippledlions,whichcanliveonleftovers.[93]Largekillsaresharedmorewidelyamongpridemembers.[119]Anadultlionessrequiresanaverageofabout5 kg(11 lb)ofmeatperdaywhilemalesrequireabout7 kg(15 lb).[120]Lionsgorgethemselvesandeatupto30 kg(66 lb)inonesession;[83]ifitisunabletoconsumeallofthekill,itrestsforafewhoursbeforecontinuingtoeat.Onhotdays,theprideretreatstoshadewithoneortwomalesstandingguard.[118]Lionsdefendtheirkillsfromscavengerssuchasvulturesandhyenas.[93] Lionsscavengeoncarrionwhentheopportunityarises;theyscavengeanimalsdeadfromnaturalcausessuchasdiseaseorthosethatwerekilledbyotherpredators.Scavenginglionskeepaconstantlookoutforcirclingvultures,whichindicatethedeathordistressofananimal.[121]Mostcarriononwhichbothhyenasandlionsfeeduponarekilledbyhyenasratherthanlions.[59]Carrionisthoughttoprovidealargepartofliondiet.[122] Predatorcompetition LionattackedbyspottedhyenasinSabiSandGameReserveLionessstealingakillfromaleopardinKrugerNationalPark Lionsandspottedhyenasoccupyasimilarecologicalnicheandwheretheycoexisttheycompeteforpreyandcarrion;areviewofdataacrossseveralstudiesindicatesadietaryoverlapof58.6%.[123]Lionstypicallyignorespottedhyenasunlessthelionsareonakillorarebeingharassedbythehyenas,whilethelattertendtovisiblyreacttothepresenceoflions,withorwithoutthepresenceoffood.Lionsseizethekillsofspottedhyenas;intheNgorongorocrateritiscommonforlionstosubsistlargelyonkillsstolenfromhyenas,causingthehyenastoincreasetheirkillrate.[124]InBotswana'sChobeNationalPark,thesituationisreversed;hyenasfrequentlychallengelionsandstealtheirkills,obtainingfoodfrom63%ofalllionkills.[125]Whenconfrontedonakillbylions,spottedhyenasmayeitherleaveorwaitpatientlyatadistanceof30–100 m(100–330 ft)untilthelionshavefinished.[126] Hyenasareboldenoughtofeedalongsidelionsandtoforcethelionsoffakill.Thetwospeciesattackoneanotherevenwhenthereisnofoodinvolvedfornoapparentreason.[127][128]Lionpredationcanaccountforupto71%ofhyenadeathsinEtoshaNationalPark.Spottedhyenashaveadaptedbyfrequentlymobbinglionsthatentertheirterritories.[129]WhenthelionpopulationinKenya'sMasaiMaraNationalReservedeclined,thespottedhyenapopulationincreasedrapidly.[130]Experimentsoncaptivespottedhyenasshowthatspecimenswithoutpriorexperiencewithlionsactindifferentlytothesightofthem,butwillreactfearfullytolionscent.[124] Lionstendtodominatecheetahsandleopards,stealtheirkillsandkilltheircubsandevenadultswhengiventhechance.[131]Cheetahsinparticularoftenlosetheirkillstolionsorotherpredators.[132]AstudyintheSerengetiecosystemrevealedthatlionskilledatleast17of125cheetahcubsbornbetween1987and1990.[133]Cheetahsavoidtheircompetitorsbyusingdifferenttemporalandhabitatniches.[134]Leopardsareabletotakerefugeintrees;lionesses,however,occasionallyattempttoclimbupandretrieveleopardkillsfromthatheight.[135] LionssimilarlydominateAfricanwilddogs,takingtheirkillsandpreyingonyoungandrarelyadultdogs.Populationdensitiesofwilddogsarelowinareaswherelionsaremoreabundant.[136]However,thereareafewreportedcasesofoldandwoundedlionsfallingpreytowilddogs.[137][138]LionsalsochargeatNilecrocodiles;dependingonthesizeofthecrocodileandthelion,eitheranimalcanlosetheirkillstotheother.Lionshavebeenobservedkillingcrocodilesthatventuredontoland.[139]Crocodilesmayalsokillandeatlions,evidencedbytheoccasionallionclawfoundincrocodilestomachs.[140] Reproductionandlifecycle LionsmatingatMasaiMaraAlioncubinMasaiMara Mostlionessesreproducebythetimetheyarefouryearsofage.[141]Lionsdonotmateataspecifictimeofyearandthefemalesarepolyestrous.[142]Likethoseofothercats,themalelion'spenishasspinesthatpointbackward.Duringwithdrawalofthepenis,thespinesrakethewallsofthefemale'svagina,whichmaycauseovulation.[143][144]Alionessmaymatewithmorethanonemalewhensheisinheat.[145]Generationlengthofthelionisaboutsevenyears.[146]Theaveragegestationperiodisaround110 days;[142]thefemalegivesbirthtoalitterofbetweenoneandfourcubsinasecludedden,whichmaybeathicket,areed-bed,acave,orsomeothershelteredarea,usuallyawayfromthepride.Shewilloftenhuntalonewhilethecubsarestillhelpless,stayingrelativelyclosetotheden.[147]Lioncubsarebornblind;theireyesopenaroundsevendaysafterbirth.Theyweigh1.2–2.1 kg(2.6–4.6 lb)atbirthandarealmosthelpless,beginningtocrawladayortwoafterbirthandwalkingaroundthreeweeksofage.[148]Toavoidabuildupofscentattractingtheattentionofpredators,thelionessmoveshercubstoanewdensiteseveraltimesamonth,carryingthemone-by-onebythenapeoftheneck.[147] Usually,themotherdoesnotintegrateherselfandhercubsbackintotheprideuntilthecubsaresixtoeightweeksold.[147]Sometimestheintroductiontopridelifeoccursearlier,particularlyifotherlionesseshavegivenbirthataboutthesametime.[93][149]Whenfirstintroducedtotherestofthepride,lioncubslackconfidencewhenconfrontedwithadultsotherthantheirmother.Theysoonbegintoimmersethemselvesinthepridelife,however,playingamongthemselvesorattemptingtoinitiateplaywiththeadults.[149]Lionesseswithcubsoftheirownaremorelikelytobetolerantofanotherlioness'scubsthanlionesseswithoutcubs.Maletoleranceofthecubsvaries—onemalecouldpatientlyletthecubsplaywithhistailorhismane,whileanothermaysnarlandbatthecubsaway.[150] PlaymediaVideoofalionessandhercubsinPhindaReserve Pridelionessesoftensynchronisetheirreproductivecyclesandcommunalrearingandsucklingoftheyoung,whichsuckleindiscriminatelyfromanyorallofthenursingfemalesinthepride.Thesynchronisationofbirthsisadvantageousbecausethecubsgrowtobeingroughlythesamesizeandhaveanequalchanceofsurvival,andsucklingsarenotdominatedbyoldercubs.[93][149]Weaningoccursaftersixorsevenmonths.Malelionsreachmaturityataboutthreeyearsofageandatfourtofiveyearsarecapableofchallenginganddisplacingadultmalesassociatedwithanotherpride.Theybegintoageandweakenatbetween10and15yearsofageatthelatest.[151] Whenoneormorenewmalesoustthepreviousmalesassociatedwithapride,thevictorsoftenkillanyexistingyoungcubs,perhapsbecausefemalesdonotbecomefertileandreceptiveuntiltheircubsmatureordie.Femalesoftenfiercelydefendtheircubsfromausurpingmalebutarerarelysuccessfulunlessagroupofthreeorfourmotherswithinapridejoinforcesagainstthemale.[152]Cubsalsodiefromstarvationandabandonment,andpredationbyleopards,hyenasandwilddogs.[138][93]Upto80%oflioncubswilldiebeforetheageoftwo.[153]Bothmaleandfemalelionsmaybeoustedfrompridestobecomenomads,althoughmostfemalesusuallyremainwiththeirbirthpride.Whenapridebecomestoolarge,however,theyoungestgenerationoffemalecubsmaybeforcedtoleavetofindtheirownterritory.Whenanewmaleliontakesoverapride,adolescentsbothmaleandfemalemaybeevicted.[154]Lionsofbothsexesmaybeinvolvedingrouphomosexualandcourtshipactivities;maleswillalsohead-rubandrollaroundwitheachotherbeforesimulatingsextogether.[155][156] Health LionsinatreenearLakeNakuru Althoughadultlionshavenonaturalpredators,evidencesuggestsmostdieviolentlyfromattacksbyhumansorotherlions.[157]Lionsofteninflictseriousinjuriesonmembersofotherpridestheyencounterinterritorialdisputesormembersofthehomepridewhenfightingatakill.[158]Crippledlionsandcubsmayfallvictimtohyenasandleopardsorbetrampledbybuffaloorelephants.Carelesslionsmaybemaimedwhenhuntingprey.[159] Tickscommonlyinfesttheears,neckandgroinregionsoflions.[160][161]AdultformsofseveraltapewormspeciesofthegenusTaeniahavebeenisolatedfromlionintestines,havingbeeningestedaslarvaeinantelopemeat.[162]LionsintheNgorongoroCraterwereafflictedbyanoutbreakofstablefly(Stomoxyscalcitrans)in1962;thisresultedinlionsbecomingemaciatedandcoveredinbloody,barepatches.Lionssoughtunsuccessfullytoevadethebitingfliesbyclimbingtreesorcrawlingintohyenaburrows;manydiedormigratedandthelocalpopulationdroppedfrom70to15individuals.[163]Amorerecentoutbreakin2001killedsixlions.[164] Captivelionshavebeeninfectedwithcaninedistempervirus(CDV)sinceatleastthemid1970s.[165]CDVisspreadbydomesticdogsandothercarnivores;a1994outbreakinSerengetiNationalParkresultedinmanylionsdevelopingneurologicalsymptomssuchasseizures.Duringtheoutbreak,severallionsdiedfrompneumoniaandencephalitis.[166]Felineimmunodeficiencyvirusandlentivirusalsoaffectcaptivelions.[167][168] Communication Headrubbingamongpridemembersisacommonsocialbehaviour Whenresting,lionsocialisationoccursthroughanumberofbehaviours;theanimal'sexpressivemovementsarehighlydeveloped.Themostcommonpeaceful,tactilegesturesareheadrubbingandsociallicking,[169]whichhavebeencomparedwiththeroleofallogroomingamongprimates.[170]Headrubbing—nuzzlingtheforehead,faceandneckagainstanotherlion—appearstobeaformofgreeting[171]andisseenoftenafterananimalhasbeenapartfromothersorafterafightorconfrontation.Malestendtorubothermales,whilecubsandfemalesrubfemales.[172]Sociallickingoftenoccursintandemwithheadrubbing;itisgenerallymutualandtherecipientappearstoexpresspleasure.Theheadandneckarethemostcommonpartsofthebodylicked;thisbehaviourmayhavearisenoutofutilitybecauselionscannotlicktheseareasthemselves.[173] Lionroar(0:09) Acaptivelionroaring Problemsplayingthisfile?Seemediahelp. Lionshaveanarrayoffacialexpressionsandbodyposturesthatserveasvisualgestures.[174]Acommonfacialexpressionisthe"grimaceface"orflehmenresponse,whichalionmakeswhensniffingchemicalsignalsandinvolvesanopenmouthwithbaredteeth,raisedmuzzle,wrinklednoseclosedeyesandrelaxedears.[175]Lionsalsousechemicalandvisualmarking;maleswillsprayandscrapeplotsofgroundandobjectswithintheterritory.[174] Thelion'srepertoireofvocalisationsislarge;variationsinintensityandpitchappeartobecentraltocommunication.Mostlionvocalisationsarevariationsofgrowling,snarling,meowingandroaring.Othersoundsproducedincludepurring,puffing,bleatingandhumming.Roaringisusedtoadvertiseitspresence.Lionsmostoftenroaratnight,asoundthatcanbeheardfromadistanceof8kilometres(5 mi).[176]Theytendtoroarinaverycharacteristicmannerstartingwithafewdeep,longroarsthatsubsideintoaseriesofshorterones.[177][178] Conservation ThelionislistedasVulnerableontheIUCNRedList.TheIndianpopulationislistedonCITESAppendixIandtheAfricanpopulationonCITESAppendixII.[2] InAfrica PlaymediaVideoofawildlioness Severallargeandwell-managedprotectedareasinAfricahostlargelionpopulations.Whereaninfrastructureforwildlifetourismhasbeendeveloped,cashrevenueforparkmanagementandlocalcommunitiesisastrongincentiveforlionconservation.[2]MostlionsnowliveinEastandSouthernAfrica;theirnumbersarerapidlydecreasing,andfellbyanestimated30–50%inthelatehalfofthe20thcentury.Primarycausesofthedeclineincludediseaseandhumaninterference.[2]In1975,itwasestimatedthatsincethe1950s,lionnumbershaddecreasedbyhalfto200,000orfewer.[179]EstimatesoftheAfricanlionpopulationrangebetween16,500and47,000livinginthewildin2002–2004.[180][78] IntheRepublicoftheCongo,Odzala-KokouaNationalParkwasconsideredalionstrongholdinthe1990s.By2014,nolionswererecordedintheprotectedareasothepopulationisconsideredlocallyextinct.[181]TheWestAfricanlionpopulationisisolatedfromtheoneinCentralAfrica,withlittleornoexchangeofbreedingindividuals.In2015,itwasestimatedthatthispopulationconsistsofabout400animals,includingfewerthan250matureindividuals.Theypersistinthreeprotectedareasintheregion,mostlyinonepopulationintheWAPprotectedareacomplex,sharedbyBenin,BurkinaFasoandNiger.ThispopulationislistedasCriticallyEndangered.[16]FieldsurveysintheWAPecosystemrevealedthatlionoccupancyislowestintheWNationalPark,andhigherinareaswithpermanentstaffandthusbetterprotection.[182] ApopulationoccursinCameroon'sWazaNationalPark,wherebetweenapproximately14and21animalspersistedasof2009.[183]Inaddition,50to150lionsareestimatedtobepresentinBurkinaFaso'sArly-Singouecosystem.[184]In2015,anadultmalelionandafemalelionweresightedinGhana'sMoleNationalPark.Thesewerethefirstsightingsoflionsinthecountryin39years.[185]Inthesameyear,apopulationofupto200lionsthatwaspreviouslythoughttohavebeenextirpatedwasfilmedintheAlatashNationalPark,Ethiopia,closetotheSudaneseborder.[186][187] In2005,LionConservationStrategiesweredevelopedforWestandCentralAfrica,andorEastandSouthernAfrica.Thestrategiesseektomaintainsuitablehabitat,ensureasufficientwildpreybaseforlions,reducefactorsthatleadtofurtherfragmentationofpopulations,andmakelion–humancoexistencesustainable.[188][189] Liondepredationonlivestockissignificantlyreducedinareaswhereherderskeeplivestockinimprovedenclosures.Suchmeasurescontributetomitigatinghuman–lionconflict.[190] InAsia AlionessinGirNationalPark ThelastrefugeoftheAsiaticlionpopulationisthe1,412 km2(545 sq mi)GirNationalParkandsurroundingareasintheregionofSaurashtraorKathiawarPeninsulainGujaratState,India.Thepopulationhasrisenfromapproximately180lionsin1974toabout400in2010.[191]Itisgeographicallyisolated,whichcanleadtoinbreedingandreducedgeneticdiversity.Since2008,theAsiaticlionhasbeenlistedasEndangeredontheIUCNRedList.[15]By2015,thepopulationhadgrownto523individualsinhabitinganareaof7,000 km2(2,700 sq mi)inSaurashtra.[192][193][194]TheAsiaticLionCensusconductedin2017recordedabout650individuals.[195] ThepresenceofnumeroushumanhabitationsclosetotheNationalParkresultsinconflictbetweenlions,localpeopleandtheirlivestock.[196][192]Someconsiderthepresenceoflionsabenefit,astheykeeppopulationsofcropdamagingherbivoresincheck.[197]Theestablishmentofasecond,independentAsiaticlionpopulationinKunoWildlifeSanctuary,locatedinMadhyaPradeshwasplannedbutin2017,theAsiaticLionReintroductionProjectseemedunlikelytobeimplemented.[198][199] Captivebreeding TwocaptivemaleAsiaticlionsinSanjayGandhiNationalPark,India LionsimportedtoEuropebeforethemiddleofthe19thcenturywerepossiblyforemostBarbarylionsfromNorthAfrica,orCapelionsfromSouthernAfrica.[200] Another11animalsthoughttobeBarbarylionskeptinAddisAbabaZooaredescendantsofanimalsownedbyEmperorHaileSelassie.WildLinkInternationalincollaborationwithOxfordUniversitylaunchedanambitiousInternationalBarbaryLionProjectwiththeaimofidentifyingandbreedingBarbarylionsincaptivityforeventualreintroductionintoanationalparkintheAtlasMountainsofMorocco.[201]However,ageneticanalysisshowedthatthecaptivelionsatAddisAbabaZoowerenotBarbarylions,butrathercloselyrelatedtowildlionsinChadandCameroon.[202] In1982,theAssociationofZoosandAquariumsstartedaSpeciesSurvivalPlanfortheAsiaticliontoincreaseitschancesofsurvival.In1987,itwasfoundthatmostlionsinNorthAmericanzooswerehybridsbetweenAfricanandAsiaticlions.[203] Breedingprogramsneedtonoteoriginsoftheparticipatinganimalstoavoidcross-breedingdifferentsubspeciesandthusreducingtheirconservationvalue.[204] Captivebreedingoflionswashaltedtoeliminateindividualsofunknownoriginandpedigree.Wild-bornlionswereimportedtoAmericanzoosfromAfricabetween1989and1995.Breedingwascontinuedin1998intheframeofanAfricanlionSpeciesSurvivalPlan.[205] About77%ofthecaptivelionsregisteredintheInternationalSpeciesInformationSystemin2006wereofunknownorigin;theseanimalsmighthavecarriedgenesthatareextinctinthewildandmaythereforebeimportanttothemaintenanceoftheoverallgeneticvariabilityofthelion.[67] Interactionswithhumans Inzoosandcircuses LionatMelbourneZoo19th-centuryetchingofaliontamerinacagewithlionsandtigers Lionsarepartofagroupofexoticanimalsthathavebeencentraltozooexhibitssincethelate18thcentury.Althoughmanymodernzoosaremoreselectiveabouttheirexhibits,[206]therearemorethan1,000Africanand100Asiaticlionsinzoosandwildlifeparksaroundtheworld.Theyareconsideredanambassadorspeciesandarekeptfortourism,educationandconservationpurposes.[207]Lionscanliveovertwentyyearsincaptivity;alioninHonoluluZoodiedattheageof22inAugust2007.[208]Histwosisters,bornin1986,alsoreachedtheageof22.[209] ThefirstEuropean"zoos"spreadamongnobleandroyalfamiliesinthe13thcentury,anduntilthe17thcenturywerecalledseraglios;atthattimetheycametobecalledmenageries,anextensionofthecabinetofcuriosities.TheyspreadfromFranceandItalyduringtheRenaissancetotherestofEurope.[210]InEngland,althoughtheseragliotraditionwaslessdeveloped,lionswerekeptattheTowerofLondoninaseraglioestablishedbyKingJohninthe13thcentury;[211][212]thiswasprobablystockedwithanimalsfromanearliermenageriestartedin1125byHenryIathishuntinglodgeinWoodstock,Oxfordshire,whereaccordingtoWilliamofMalmesburylionshadbeenstocked.[213] LionswerekeptincrampedandsqualidconditionsatLondonZoountilalargerlionhousewithroomiercageswasbuiltinthe1870s.[214]Furtherchangestookplaceintheearly20thcenturywhenCarlHagenbeckdesignedenclosureswithconcrete"rocks",moreopenspaceandamoatinsteadofbars,morecloselyresemblinganaturalhabitat.HagenbeckdesignedlionenclosuresforbothMelbourneZooandSydney'sTarongaZoo;althoughhisdesignswerepopular,theuseofbarsandcagedenclosuresprevailedinmanyzoosuntilthe1960s.[215]Inthelate20thcentury,larger,morenaturalenclosuresandtheuseofwiremeshorlaminatedglassinsteadoflowereddensallowedvisitorstocomecloserthanevertotheanimals;someattractionssuchastheCatForest/LionOverlookofOklahomaCityZoologicalParkplacedthedenongroundlevel,higherthanvisitors.[216] LiontaminghasbeenpartofbothestablishedcircusesandindividualactssuchasSiegfried&Roy.Thepracticebeganintheearly19thcenturybyFrenchmanHenriMartinandAmericanIsaacVanAmburgh,whobothtouredwidelyandwhosetechniqueswerecopiedbyanumberoffollowers.[217]VanAmburghperformedbeforeQueenVictoriain1838whenhetouredGreatBritain.MartincomposedapantomimetitledLesLionsdeMysore("thelionsofMysore"),anideaAmburghquicklyborrowed.Theseactseclipsedequestrianismactsasthecentraldisplayofcircusshowsandenteredpublicconsciousnessintheearly20thcenturywithcinema.Indemonstratingthesuperiorityofhumanoveranimal,liontamingservedapurposesimilartoanimalfightsofpreviouscenturies.[217]Theultimateproofofatamer'sdominanceandcontroloveralionisdemonstratedbytheplacingofthetamer'sheadinthelion'smouth.Thenow-iconicliontamer'schairwaspossiblyfirstusedbyAmericanClydeBeatty(1903–1965).[218] Huntingandgames Mainarticle:Lionhunting Seealso:Lionbaiting Bas-reliefofawoundedlionessfromNineveh,c. 645–635BC Lionhuntinghasoccurredsinceancienttimesandwasoftenaroyalpastime;intendedtodemonstratethepowerofthekingovernature.TheearliestsurvivingrecordoflionhuntingisanancientEgyptianinscriptiondatedcirca1380BCthatmentionsPharaohAmenhotep IIIkilling102lions"withhisownarrows"duringthefirsttenyearsofhisrule.TheAssyrianswouldreleasecaptivelionsinareservedspaceforthekingtohunt;thiseventwouldbewatchedbyspectatorsasthekingandhismen,onhorsebackorchariots,killedthelionswitharrowsandspears.LionswerealsohuntedduringtheMughalEmpire,whereEmperorJahangirissaidtohaveexcelledatit.[219]InAncientRome,lionswerekeptbyemperorsforhunts,gladiatorfightsandexecutions.[220] TheMaasaipeoplehavetraditionallyviewedthekillingoflionsasariteofpassage.Historically,lionswerehuntedbyindividuals,however,duetoreducedlionpopulations,eldersdiscouragesololionhunts.[221]DuringtheEuropeancolonisationofAfricainthe19thcentury,thehuntingoflionswasencouragedbecausetheywereconsideredasverminandlionhidesfetched£1each.[222]Thewidelyreproducedimageryoftheheroichunterchasinglionswoulddominatealargepartofthecentury.[223]Trophyhuntingoflionsinrecentyearshasbeenmetwithcontroversy;notablywiththekillingofCecilthelioninmid-2015.[224] Man-eating TheTsavomaneatersofEastAfricaondisplayintheFieldMuseumofNaturalHistoryinChicago Lionsdonotusuallyhunthumansbutsome(usuallymales)seemtoseekthemout.Onewell-publicisedcaseistheTsavomaneaters;in1898,28officiallyrecordedrailwayworkersbuildingtheKenya-UgandaRailwayweretakenbylionsoverninemonthsduringtheconstructionofabridgeinKenya.[225]Thehunterwhokilledthelionswroteabookdetailingtheanimals'predatorybehaviour;theywerelargerthannormalandlackedmanes,andoneseemedtosufferfromtoothdecay.Theinfirmitytheory,includingtoothdecay,isnotfavouredbyallresearchers;ananalysisofteethandjawsofman-eatinglionsinmuseumcollectionssuggeststhatwhiletoothdecaymayexplainsomeincidents,preydepletioninhuman-dominatedareasisamorelikelycauseoflionpredationonhumans.[226]Sickorinjuredanimalsmaybemorepronetoman-eatingbutthebehaviourisnotunusual,nornecessarilyaberrant.[227] Lions'proclivityforman-eatinghasbeensystematicallyexamined.AmericanandTanzanianscientistsreportthatman-eatingbehaviourinruralareasofTanzaniaincreasedgreatlyfrom1990to2005.Atleast563villagerswereattackedandmanyeatenoverthisperiod.TheincidentsoccurrednearSelousNationalParkinRufijiDistrictandinLindiProvinceneartheMozambicanborder.Whiletheexpansionofvillagesintobushcountryisoneconcern,theauthorsargueconservationpolicymustmitigatethedangerbecauseinthiscase,conservationcontributesdirectlytohumandeaths.CasesinLindiinwhichlionsseizehumansfromthecentresofsubstantialvillageshavebeendocumented.[228]Anotherstudyof1,000peopleattackedbylionsinsouthernTanzaniabetween1988and2009foundthattheweeksfollowingthefullmoon,whentherewaslessmoonlight,wereastrongindicatorofincreasednight-timeattacksonpeople.[229] AccordingtoRobertR.Frump,MozambicanrefugeesregularlycrossingKrugerNationalPark,SouthAfrica,atnightareattackedandeatenbylions;parkofficialshavesaidman-eatingisaproblemthere.Frumpsaidthousandsmayhavebeenkilledinthedecadesafterapartheidsealedtheparkandforcedrefugeestocrosstheparkatnight.Fornearlyacenturybeforetheborderwassealed,Mozambicanshadregularlycrossedtheparkindaytimewithlittleharm.[230] Culturalsignificance Mainarticle:Culturaldepictionsoflions GranitestatueoftheEgyptiangoddessSekhmetfromtheLuxorTemple,dated1403–1365BC,exhibitedintheNationalMuseumofDenmarkRoaringandstridinglionfromtheThroneRoomofNebuchadnezzar II,6thcenturyBC,fromBabylon,IraqTheLionCapitalofAshoka,whichhasbeenaemblemofIndiaDorothyGalemeetstheCowardlyLioninTheWonderfulWizardofOz.ArtbyW.W.Denslow,1900. Thelionisoneofthemostwidelyrecognisedanimalsymbolsinhumanculture.Ithasbeenextensivelydepictedinsculpturesandpaintings,onnationalflags,andincontemporaryfilmsandliterature.[48]ItappearedasasymbolforstrengthandnobilityinculturesacrossEurope,AsiaandAfrica,despiteincidentsofattacksonpeople.Thelionhasbeendepictedas"kingofthejungle"and"kingofbeasts",andthusbecameapopularsymbolforroyaltyandstateliness.[231]Thelionisalsousedasasymbolofsportingteams.[232] Africa Insub-SaharanAfrica,thelionhasbeenacommoncharacterinstories,proverbsanddances,butrarelyfeaturedinvisualarts.[233]Insomecultures,thelionsymbolisespowerandroyalty.[234]IntheSwahililanguage,thelionisknownassimbawhichalsomeans"aggressive","king"and"strong".[58]Somerulershadtheword"lion"intheirnickname.SundiataKeitaoftheMaliEmpirewascalled"LionofMali".[235]ThefounderoftheWaalokingdomissaidtohavebeenraisedbylionsandreturnedtohispeoplepart-liontounitethemusingtheknowledgehelearnedfromthelions.[234] InpartsofWestAfrica,lionssymbolisedthetopclassoftheirsocialhierarchies.[234]Inmoreheavilyforestedareaswherelionswererare,theleopardrepresentedthetopofthehierarchy.[233]InpartsofWestandEastAfrica,thelionisassociatedwithhealingandisregardedasthelinkbetweenseersandthesupernatural.InotherEastAfricantraditions,thelionisthesymboloflaziness.[234]InmuchofAfricanfolklore,thelionisportrayedashavinglowintelligenceandiseasilytrickedbyotheranimals.[235] TheancientEgyptiansportrayedseveraloftheirwardeitiesaslionesses,whichtheyreveredasfiercehunters.EgyptiandeitiesassociatedwithlionsincludeSekhmet,Bast,Mafdet,Menhit,PakhetandTefnut.[231]ThesedeitieswereoftenconnectedwiththesungodRaandhisfierceheat,andtheirdangerouspowerwasinvokedtoguardpeopleorsacredplaces.Thesphinx,afigurewithalion'sbodyandtheheadofahumanorothercreature,representedapharaohordeitywhohadtakenonthisprotectiverole.[236] Easternworld ThelionwasaprominentsymbolinancientMesopotamiafromSumeruptoAssyrianandBabyloniantimes,whereitwasstronglyassociatedwithkingship.[237]LionswereamongthemajorsymbolsofthegoddessInanna/Ishtar.[238][239]TheLionofBabylonwastheforemostsymboloftheBabylonianEmpire.[240]TheLionHuntofAshurbanipalisafamoussequenceofAssyrianpalacereliefsfromc. 640BC,nowintheBritishMuseum.[241]TheLionofJudahisthebiblicalemblemofthetribeofJudahandthelaterKingdomofJudah.[242]LionsarefrequentlymentionedintheBible;notablyintheBookofDanielinwhichtheeponymousherorefusestoworshipKingDariusandisforcedtosleepinthelions'denwhereheismiraculouslyunharmed(Dan6).IntheBookofJudges,SamsonkillsalionashetravelstovisitaPhilistinewoman.(Judg14).[243] Indo-Persianchroniclersregardedthelionaskeeperoforderintherealmofanimals.TheSanskritwordmrigendrasignifiesalionaskingofanimalsingeneralordeerinparticular.[244] Narasimha,theman-lion,isoneoftenavatarsoftheHindugodVishnu.[245]SinghisanancientIndianvedicnamemeaning"lion",datingbackover2,000years.ItwasoriginallyusedonlybyRajputs,aHinduKshatriyaormilitarycastebutisusedbymillionsofHinduRajputsandmorethantwentymillionSikhstoday.[246]TheLionCapitalofAshoka,erectedbyEmperorAshokainthe3rdcenturyCE,depictsfourlionsstandingbacktoback.ItwasmadetheNationalEmblemofIndiain1950.[247]ThelionisalsosymbolicfortheSinhalesepeople;thetermderivedfromtheSanskritSinhala,meaning"oflions"[248]whileasword-wieldinglionisthecentralfigureonthenationalflagofSriLanka.[249] ThelionisacommonmotifinChineseart;itwasfirstusedinartduringthelateSpringandAutumnperiod(fifthorsixthcenturyBC)andbecamemorepopularduringtheHanDynasty(206BC –AD220)whenimperialguardianlionsstartedtobeplacedinfrontofimperialpalacesforprotection.BecauselionshaveneverbeennativetoChina,earlydepictionsweresomewhatunrealistic;aftertheintroductionofBuddhistarttoChinaintheTangDynastyafterthesixthcenturyAD,lionswereusuallydepictedwinglesswithshorter,thickerbodiesandcurlymanes.[250]TheliondanceisatraditionaldanceinChinesecultureinwhichperformersinlioncostumesmimicalion'smovements,oftenwithmusicalaccompanimentfromcymbals,drumsandgongs.TheyareperformedatChineseNewYear,theAugustMoonFestivalandothercelebratoryoccasionsforgoodluck.[251] Westernworld Lion-headedfiguresandamuletswereexcavatedintombsintheGreekislandsofCrete,Euboea,Rhodes,ParosandChios.TheyareassociatedwiththeEgyptiandeitySekhmetanddatetotheearlyIronAgebetweenthe9thand6thcenturiesBC.[252]ThelionisfeaturedinseveralofAesop'sfables,notablyTheLionandtheMouse.[253]TheNemeanlionwassymbolicinancientGreeceandRome,representedastheconstellationandzodiacsignLeo,anddescribedinmythology,whereitwaskilledandwornbytheheroHeracles,[254]symbolisingvictoryoverdeath.[255]LancelotandGawainwerealsoheroesslayinglionsintheMiddleAges.Insomemedievalstories,lionswereportrayedasalliesandcompanions.[256]"Lion"wasthenicknameofseveralmedievalwarrior-rulerswithareputationforbravery,suchasRichardtheLionheart.[231] LionscontinuetoappearinmodernliteratureascharactersincludingthemessianicAslaninthe1950novelTheLion,theWitchandtheWardrobeandTheChroniclesofNarniaseriesbyC.S.Lewis,[257]andthecomedicCowardlyLioninL.FrankBaum's1900TheWonderfulWizardofOz.[258]Lionsymbolismwasusedfromtheadventofcinema;oneofthemosticonicandwidelyrecognisedlionsisLeo,whichhasbeenthemascotforMetro-Goldwyn-Mayerstudiossincethe1920s.[259]The1966filmBornFreefeaturesElsathelionessandisbasedonthe1960non-fictionbookwiththesametitle.[260]Thelion'sroleaskingofthebeastshasbeenusedinthe1994DisneyanimatedfeaturefilmTheLionKing.[261] Lionsarefrequentlydepictedoncoatsofarms,likeonthecoatofarmsofFinland,[262]eitherasadeviceonshieldsorassupporters,butthelionessisusedmuchlessfrequently.[263]TheheraldiclionisparticularlycommoninBritisharms.Itistraditionallydepictedinagreatvarietyofattitudes,althoughwithinFrenchheraldryonlylionsrampantareconsideredtobelions;felinefiguresinanyotherpositionareinsteadreferredtoasleopards.[264] Seealso Catsportal 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^Packer,C.;Swanson,A.;Ikanda,D.;Kushnir,H.(2011).Rands,S.A.(ed.)."FearofDarkness,theFullMoonandtheNocturnalEcologyofAfricanLions".PLOSOne.6(7):e22285.Bibcode:2011PLoSO...622285P.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0022285.PMC 3140494.PMID 21799812. ^Frump,R.R.(2006).TheMan-EatersofEden:LifeandDeathinKrugerNationalPark.TheLyonsPress.ISBN 978-1-59228-892-2. ^abcGarai,J.(1973).TheBookofSymbols.NewYork:Simon&Schuster.ISBN 978-0-671-21773-0. ^"Chelseacentenarycrestunveiled".BBC.12November2004.Retrieved2January2007. ^abJackson,p.119. ^abcdHogarth,C.;Butler,N.(2004)."AnimalSymbolism(Africa)".InWalter,M.N.(ed.).Shamanism:AnEncyclopediaofWorldBeliefs,Practices,andCulture,Volume1.pp. 3–6.ISBN 978-1-57607-645-3. ^abLynch,P.A.(2004)."Lion".AfricanMythologyAtoZ.InfobasePublishing.p. 63.ISBN 978-0-8160-4892-2. ^Pinch,G.(2004).EgyptianMythology:AGuidetotheGods,Goddesses,andTraditionsofAncientEgypt.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.pp. 133–134,206.ISBN 978-0-19-517024-5. ^Cassin,Elena(1981)."Leroietlelion"[Theking&thelion].Revuedel'HistoiredesReligions(inFrench).298(198–4):355–401.doi:10.3406/rhr.1981.4828. ^Black,J.;Green,A.(1992).Gods,DemonsandSymbolsofAncientMesopotamia:AnIllustratedDictionary.TheBritishMuseumPress.p. 118.ISBN 978-0-7141-1705-8. ^Collins,P.(1994)."TheSumerianGoddessInanna(3400-2200BC)".PapersoffromtheInstituteofArchaeology.5:113–114.doi:10.5334/pia.57. ^Sass,B.;Marzahn,J.(2010)."Themotifs".AramaicandfiguralstampimpressionsonbricksofthesixthcenturyB.C.fromBabylon.Wiesbaden,Germany:HarrassowitzVerlag.pp. 178–186.ISBN 9783447061841. ^Reade,J.(1998).AssyrianSculpture(Second ed.).London,UnitedKingdom:TheBritishMuseumPress.pp. 72–79,73.ISBN 978-0-7141-2141-3. ^Epstein,M.M.(1997).DreamsofsubversioninmedievalJewishartandliterature.PennStatePress.pp. 110,121.ISBN 978-0-271-01605-4. ^Borowski,O.(2008)."Lion".InSakenfeld,K.D.(ed.).NewInterpreter'sDictionaryoftheBible.Vol. 3.AbingdonPress.pp. 669–670.ISBN 978-0687333653. ^Rangarajan,M.(2013)."Animalswithrichhistories:thecaseofthelionsofGirForest,Gujarat,India".HistoryandTheory.52(4):109–127.doi:10.1111/hith.10690. ^Chandrasekharam,D.(2007)."Geo-mythologyofIndia".InPiccardi,L.;Masse,W.B.(eds.).MythandGeology.GeologicalSocietySpecialPublicationsNo.273.London:GeologicalSociety.pp. 29–37. ^Singh,K.(2004).AHistoryoftheSikhs:1469–1838.Vol. I.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-567308-1. ^Jackson,p.122. ^Harper,Douglas(2016)."Sinhalese".OnlineEtymologyDictionary.Retrieved20August2016. ^"Article6:TheNationalFlag".Constitution.GovernmentofSriLanka.1978.Archivedfromtheoriginalon14August2007.Retrieved6August2007. ^Ling,L.(2002)."TheTwo-WayProcessintheAgeofGlobalization".Ex/Change.No. 4.CityUniversityofHongKong.Archivedfromtheoriginalon6April2005.Retrieved26September2007. ^"LionDance".NationsOnline.Retrieved2September2020. ^Apostola,E.(2014)."Cross-culturalRelationsbetweenEgyptandGreeceduringtheEarlyIronAge:RepresentationsofEgyptianLion-HeadedDeitiesintheAegean".InPinarello,M.S.;Yoo,J.;Lundock,J.;Walsh,C.(eds.).CurrentResearchinEgyptology:ProceedingsoftheFifteenthAnnualSymposium.Oxford:OxbowBooks.pp. 100–112. ^Jackson,pp.99,150 ^Jackson,p.96 ^Tressider,J.(1997).TheHutchinsonDictionaryofSymbols.London:HeliconPublishers.p. 124.ISBN 978-1-85986-059-5. ^Jackson,p.103–105. ^Ford,P.(2005).CompaniontoNarnia:RevisedEdition.SanFrancisco:HarperCollins.p. 6.ISBN 978-0-06-079127-8. ^Jackson,p.135. ^"AdvertisingMascots—Animals—LeotheMGMLion(MGMStudios)".TVAcres.Archivedfromtheoriginalon5December2012. ^Jackson,pp.54–55. ^Jackson,pp.7,197. ^Klinge,M.(1999).Suomensinivalkoisetvärit:Kansallistenjamuidenkinsymbolienvaiheistajamerkityksestä(inFinnish).Otava.ISBN 951-1-15314-5. ^"ArmsofMargaretNorrieMcCain".ThePublicRegisterofArms,FlagsandBadges.CA.Retrieved30June2010. ^ArthurFox-Davies,ACompleteGuidetoHeraldry,T.C.andE.C.Jack,London,1909,ChapterXI,https://archive.org/details/completeguidetoh00foxduoft. Books Baratay,E.&Hardouin-Fugier,E.(2002).Zoo:ahistoryofzoologicalgardensintheWest.London:ReaktionBooks.ISBN 978-1-86189-111-2. Blunt,W.(1975).TheArkinthePark:TheZoointheNineteenthCentury.London:HamishHamilton.ISBN 978-0-241-89331-9. deCourcy,C.(1995).TheZooStory.Ringwood,Victoria:PenguinBooks.ISBN 978-0-14-023919-5. Jackson,D.(2010).Lion.London:ReaktionBooks.ISBN 978-1861896551. Schaller,G.B.(1972).TheSerengetilion:Astudyofpredator–preyrelations.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.ISBN 978-0-226-73639-6. Scott,J.;Scott,A.(2002).BigCatDiary:Lion.NewYork:HarperCollins.ISBN 9780007146666. Notes ^PopulationsofIndiaarelistedinAppendixI. Externallinks LookuplioninWiktionary,thefreedictionary. WikispecieshasinformationrelatedtoLion. Wikisourcehasthetextofthe1911EncyclopædiaBritannicaarticle"Lion". WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoLion. IUCN/SSCCatSpecialistGroup."LionPantheraleo". "LionConservationFund". ThePortugalNews(2014)."RaredesertlionkilledinAngolaaftersupplyingunprecedenteddata".Archivedfromtheoriginalon2August2018.Retrieved24May2018. "Lion" .Collier'sNewEncyclopedia.1921. vteExtantCarnivoraspecies Kingdom:Animalia Phylum:Chordata Class:Mammalia Infraclass:Eutheria Superorder:Laurasiatheria SuborderFeliformiaNandiniidaeNandinia Africanpalmcivet(N.binotata) Herpestidae(Mongooses)Atilax Marshmongoose(A.paludinosus) Bdeogale Bushy-tailedmongoose(B.crassicauda) Jackson'smongoose(B.jacksoni) Black-footedmongoose(B.nigripes) Crossarchus Alexander'skusimanse(C.alexandri) Angolankusimanse(C.ansorgei) Commonkusimanse(C.obscurus) Flat-headedkusimanse(C.platycephalus) Cynictis Yellowmongoose(C.penicillata) Dologale Pousargues'smongoose(D.dybowskii) Helogale Ethiopiandwarfmongoose(H.hirtula) Commondwarfmongoose(H.parvula) Herpestes Angolanslendermongoose(H.flavescens) Egyptianmongoose(H.ichneumon) Somalianslendermongoose(H.ochracea) Capegraymongoose(H.pulverulenta) Commonslendermongoose(H.sanguinea) Ichneumia White-tailedmongoose(I.albicauda) Liberiictus Liberianmongoose(L.kuhni) Mungos Gambianmongoose(M.gambianus) Bandedmongoose(M.mungo) Paracynictis Selous'smongoose(P.selousi) Rhynchogale Meller'smongoose(R.melleri) Suricata Meerkat(S.suricatta) Urva SmallIndianmongoose(U.auropunctata) Short-tailedmongoose(U.brachyura) Indiangreymongoose(U.edwardsii) Indianbrownmongoose(U.fusca) Javanmongoose(U.javanica) Collaredmongoose(U.semitorquata) Ruddymongoose(U.smithii) Crab-eatingmongoose(U.urva) Stripe-neckedmongoose(U.vitticolla) Xenogale Long-nosedmongoose(X.naso) Hyaenidae(Hyenas)Crocuta Spottedhyena(C.crocuta) Hyaena Stripedhyena(H.hyaena) Parahyaena Brownhyena(P.brunnea) Proteles Aardwolf(P.cristata) FelidaeLargefamilylistedbelowViverridaeLargefamilylistedbelowEupleridaeSmallfamilylistedbelowFamilyFelidaeFelinaeAcinonyx Cheetah(A.jubatus) Caracal Africangoldencat(C.aurata) Caracal(C.caracal) Catopuma Baycat(C.badia) Asiangoldencat(C.temminckii) Felis Chinesemountaincat(F.bieti) Domesticcat(F.catus) Junglecat(F.chaus) Africanwildcat(F.lybica) Sandcat(F.margarita) Black-footedcat(F.nigripes) Europeanwildcat(F.silvestris) Herpailurus Jaguarundi(H.yagouaroundi) Leopardus Pantanalcat(L.braccatus) Pampascat(L.colocola) Easternoncilla(L.emiliae) Northerncolocolo(L.garleppi) Geoffroy'scat(L.geoffroyi) Kodkod(L.guigna) Southerntigercat(L.guttulus) Andeanmountaincat(L.jacobita) Muñoa'scolocolo(L.munoai) Southerncolocolo(L.pajeros) Ocelot(L.pardalis) Oncilla(L.tigrinus) Margay(L.wiedii) Leptailurus Serval(L.serval) Lynx Canadalynx(L.canadensis) Eurasianlynx(L.lynx) Iberianlynx(L.pardinus) Bobcat(L.rufus) Otocolobus Pallas'scat(O.manul) Pardofelis Marbledcat(P.marmorata) Prionailurus Leopardcat(P.bengalensis) Sundaleopardcat(P.javanensis) Flat-headedcat(P.planiceps) Rusty-spottedcat(P.rubiginosus) Fishingcat(P.viverrinus) Puma Cougar(P.concolor) PantherinaePanthera Lion(P.leo) Jaguar(P.onca) Leopard(P.pardus) Tiger(P.tigris) Snowleopard(P.uncia) Neofelis Sundacloudedleopard(N.diardi) Cloudedleopard(N.nebulosa) FamilyViverridaeParadoxurinaeArctictis Binturong(A.binturong) Arctogalidia Small-toothedpalmcivet(A.trivirgata) Macrogalidia Sulawesipalmcivet(M.musschenbroekii) Paguma Maskedpalmcivet(P.larvata) Paradoxurus Asianpalmcivet(P.hermaphroditus) Brownpalmcivet(P.jerdoni) Goldenpalmcivet(P.zeylonensis) HemigalinaeChrotogale Owston'spalmcivet(C.owstoni) Cynogale Ottercivet(C.bennettii) Diplogale Hose'spalmcivet(D.hosei) Hemigalus Bandedpalmcivet(H.derbyanus) Prionodontinae(Asiaticlinsangs)Prionodon Bandedlinsang(P.linsang) Spottedlinsang(P.pardicolor) ViverrinaeCivettictis Africancivet(C.civetta) Genetta(Genets) Abyssiniangenet(G.abyssinica) Angolangenet(G.angolensis) Bourlon'sgenet(G.bourloni) Crestedservalinegenet(G.cristata) Commongenet(G.genetta) Johnston'sgenet(G.johnstoni) Letabagenet(G.letabae) Rusty-spottedgenet(G.maculata) Pardinegenet(G.pardina) Aquaticgenet(G.piscivora) Kinggenet(G.poensis) Servalinegenet(G.servalina) Hausagenet(G.thierryi) Capegenet(G.tigrina) Giantforestgenet(G.victoriae) Poiana CentralAfricanoyan(P.richardsonii) WestAfricanoyan(P.leightoni) Viverra Malabarlarge-spottedcivet(V.civettina) Large-spottedcivet(V.megaspila) Malayancivet(V.tangalunga) LargeIndiancivet(V.zibetha) Viverricula SmallIndiancivet(V.indica) FamilyEupleridaeEuplerinaeCryptoprocta Fossa(C.ferox) Eupleres Easternfalanouc(E.goudotii) Westernfalanouc(E.major) Fossa Malagasycivet(F.fossana) GalidiinaeGalidia Ring-tailedvontsira(G.elegans) Galidictis Broad-stripedMalagasymongoose(G.fasciata) Grandidier'smongoose(G.grandidieri) Mungotictis Narrow-stripedmongoose(M.decemlineata) Salanoia Brown-tailedmongoose(S.concolor) Durrell'svontsira(S.durrelli) SuborderCaniformia(cont.below)Ursidae(Bears)Ailuropoda Giantpanda(A.melanoleuca) Helarctos Sunbear(H.malayanus) Melursus Slothbear(M.ursinus) Tremarctos Spectacledbear(T.ornatus) Ursus Americanblackbear(U.americanus) Brownbear(U.arctos) Polarbear(U.maritimus) Asianblackbear(U.thibetanus) Mephitidae(Skunks)Conepatus(Hog-nosedskunks) Molina'shog-nosedskunk(C.chinga) Americanhog-nosedskunk(C.leuconotus) Stripedhog-nosedskunk(C.semistriatus) Mephitis Hoodedskunk(M.macroura) Stripedskunk(M.mephitis) Mydaus Sundastinkbadger(M.javanensis) Palawanstinkbadger(M.marchei) Spilogale(Spottedskunks) Southernspottedskunk(S.angustifrons) Westernspottedskunk(S.gracilis) Easternspottedskunk(S.putorius) Pygmyspottedskunk(S.pygmaea) Procyonidae(Raccoons,coatis,olingos)Bassaricyon(Olingos) Easternlowlandolingo(B.alleni) Northernolingo(B.gabbii) Westernlowlandolingo(B.medius) Olinguito(B.neblina) Bassariscus Ringtail(B.astutus) Cacomistle(B.sumichrasti) Nasua(Coatisinclusive) White-nosedcoati(N.narica) SouthAmericancoati(N.nasua) Nasuella(Coatisinclusive) Westernmountaincoati(N.olivacea) Potos Kinkajou(P.flavus) Procyon Crab-eatingraccoon(P.cancrivorus) Raccoon(P.lotor) Cozumelraccoon(P.pygmaeus) AiluridaeAilurus Himlayanredpanda(A.fulgens) Chineseredpanda(A.styani) SuborderCaniformia(cont.above)Otariidae(Earedseals)(includesfursealsandsealions)(Pinnipedinclusive)Arctocephalus SouthAmericanfurseal(A.australis) Australasianfurseal(A.forsteri) Galápagosfurseal(A.galapagoensis) Antarcticfurseal(A.gazella) JuanFernándezfurseal(A.philippii) Brownfurseal(A.pusillus) Guadalupefurseal(A.townsendi) Subantarcticfurseal(A.tropicalis) Callorhinus Northernfurseal(C.ursinus) Eumetopias Stellersealion(E.jubatus) Neophoca Australiansealion(N.cinerea) Otaria SouthAmericansealion(O.flavescens) Phocarctos NewZealandsealion(P.hookeri) Zalophus Californiasealion(Z.californianus) Galápagossealion(Z.wollebaeki) Odobenidae(Pinnipedinclusive)Odobenus Walrus(O.rosmarus) Phocidae(Earlessseals)(Pinnipedinclusive)Cystophora Hoodedseal(C.cristata) Erignathus Beardedseal(E.barbatus) Halichoerus Greyseal(H.grypus) Histriophoca Ribbonseal(H.fasciata) Hydrurga Leopardseal(H.leptonyx) Leptonychotes Weddellseal(L.weddellii) Lobodon Crabeaterseal(L.carcinophagus) Mirounga(Elephantseals) Northernelephantseal(M.angustirostris) Southernelephantseal(M.leonina) Monachus Mediterraneanmonkseal(M.monachus) Neomonachus Hawaiianmonkseal(N.schauinslandi) Ommatophoca Rossseal(O.rossi) Pagophilus Harpseal(P.groenlandicus) Phoca Spottedseal(P.largha) Harborseal(P.vitulina) Pusa Caspianseal(P.caspica) Ringedseal(P.hispida) Baikalseal(P.sibirica) CanidaeLargefamilylistedbelowMustelidaeLargefamilylistedbelowFamilyCanidae(includesdogs)Atelocynus Short-eareddog(A.microtis) Canis Goldenjackal(C.aureus) Domesticdog(C.familiaris) Coyote(C.latrans) Africanwolf(C.lupaster) Wolf(C.lupus) Easternwolf(C.lycaon) Redwolf(C.rufus) Ethiopianwolf(C.simensis) Cerdocyon Crab-eatingfox(C.thous) Chrysocyon Manedwolf(C.brachyurus) Cuon Dhole(C.alpinus) Lupulella Side-stripedjackal(L.adustus) Black-backedjackal(L.mesomelas) Lycalopex Culpeo(L.culpaeus) Darwin'sfox(L.fulvipes) SouthAmericangrayfox(L.griseus) Pampasfox(L.gymnocercus) Sechuranfox(L.sechurae) Hoaryfox(L.vetulus) Lycaon Africanwilddog(L.pictus) Nyctereutes Commonraccoondog(N.procyonoides) Japaneseraccoondog(N.viverrinus) Otocyon Bat-earedfox(O.megalotis) Speothos Bushdog(S.venaticus) Urocyon Grayfox(U.cinereoargenteus) Islandfox(U.littoralis) Vulpes(Foxes) Bengalfox(V.bengalensis) Blanford'sfox(V.cana) Capefox(V.chama) Corsacfox(V.corsac) Tibetanfox(V.ferrilata) Arcticfox(V.lagopus) Kitfox(V.macrotis) Palefox(V.pallida) Rüppell'sfox(V.rueppelli) Swiftfox(V.velox) Redfox(V.vulpes) Fennecfox(V.zerda) FamilyMustelidaeHelictidinae(Ferret-badgers)Melogale Borneanferretbadger(M.everetti) Chineseferret-badger(M.moschata) Javanferret-badger(M.orientalis) Burmeseferret-badger(M.personata) Vietnamferret-badger(M.cucphuongensis) Guloninae(Martensandwolverines)Eira Tayra(E.barbara) Gulo Wolverine(G.gulo) Martes(Martens) Americanmarten(M.americana) Pacificmarten(M.caurina) Yellow-throatedmarten(M.flavigula) Beechmarten(M.foina) Nilgirimarten(M.gwatkinsii) Europeanpinemarten(M.martes) Japanesemarten(M.melampus) Sable(M.zibellina) Pekania Fisher(P.pennanti) Ictonychinae(Africanpolecatsandgrisons)Galictis Lessergrison(G.cuja) Greatergrison(G.vittata) Ictonyx Saharanstripedpolecat(I.libyca) Stripedpolecat(I.striatus) Lyncodon Patagonianweasel(L.patagonicus) Poecilogale Africanstripedweasel(P.albinucha) Vormela Marbledpolecat(V.peregusna) Lutrinae(Otters)Aonyx Africanclawlessotter(A.capensis) Asiansmall-clawedotter(A.cinereus) Congoclawlessotter(A.congicus) Enhydra Seaotter(E.lutris) Hydrictis Spotted-neckedotter(H.maculicollis) Lontra NorthAmericanriverotter(L.canadensis) Marineotter(L.felina) Neotropicalotter(L.longicaudis) Southernriverotter(L.provocax) Lutra Eurasianotter(L.lutra) Hairy-nosedotter(L.sumatrana) Lutrogale Smooth-coatedotter(L.perspicillata) Pteronura Giantotter(P.brasiliensis) Melinae(Eurasianbadgers)Arctonyx Northernhogbadger(A.albogularis) Greaterhogbadger(A.collaris) Sumatranhogbadger(A.hoevenii) Meles Japanesebadger(M.anakuma) Caucasianbadger(M.canescens) Asianbadger(M.leucurus) Europeanbadger(M.meles) MellivorinaeMellivora Honeybadger(M.capensis) Mustelinae(Weaselsandminks)Mustela(Weaselsandferrets) Mountainweasel(M.altaica) Stoat/Beringianermine(M.erminea) Steppepolecat(M.eversmannii) Ferret(M.furo) Haidaermine(M.haidarum) Japaneseweasel(M.itatsi) Yellow-belliedweasel(M.kathiah) Europeanmink(M.lutreola) Indonesianmountainweasel(M.lutreolina) Black-footedferret(M.nigripes) Leastweasel(M.nivalis) Malayanweasel(M.nudipes) Europeanpolecat(M.putorius) Americanermine(M.richardsonii) Siberianweasel(M.sibirica) Back-stripedweasel(M.strigidorsa) Neogale Amazonweasel(N.africana) Colombianweasel(N.felipei) Long-tailedweasel(N.frenata) Americanmink(N.vison) TaxidiinaeTaxidea Americanbadger(T.taxus) TaxonidentifiersPantheraleo Wikidata:Q140 Wikispecies:Pantheraleo ADW:Panthera_leo ARKive:panthera-leo CMS:panthera-leo EoL:328672 EPPO:PNTHLE Fossilworks:49734 GBIF:5219404 iNaturalist:41964 IRMNG:10196306 ISC:70719 ITIS:183803 IUCN:15951 MSW:14000228 NCBI:9689 Species+:6353 TreeofLife:123566 TSA:12799 uBio:105514 Felisleo Wikidata:Q15294488 EoL:4443790 ZooBank:DB265300-FB04-4DBA-B843-8DD236484EE4 AuthoritycontrolNationallibraries Spain France(data) Germany Israel UnitedStates Japan Other NationalArchives(US) Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lion&oldid=1072364692" 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