Prejudice - Wikipedia

Gordon Allport defined prejudice as a "feeling, favorable or unfavorable, toward a person or thing, prior to, or not based on, actual experience". Auestad (2015) ... Prejudice FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Attitudesbasedonpreconceivedcategories Forotheruses,seePrejudice(disambiguation). "Bigot"redirectshere.Forotheruses,seeBigot(disambiguation). Mr.Prejudice-paintedbyHoracePippinin1943,depictsapersonalviewofracerelationsintheUnitedStates PartofaseriesonDiscrimination Forms Institutional Structural Attributes Age Disability Genetics(Haircolor,Hairtexture,Height,Looks,Size) Language Race /Ethnicity(Skincolor) Rank(Class,Caste) Religion Sex Sexualorientation Social Acephobia Adultism Anti-albinism Anti-autism Anti-drugaddicts Anti-homelessness Anti-intellectualism Anti-intersex Anti-lefthandedness Anti-Masonry Aporophobia Audism Biphobia Clannism Cronyism Elitism Ephebiphobia Fatphobia Gayphobia Gerontophobia Heterosexism HIV/AIDSstigma Homophobia Leprosystigma Lesbophobia Misandry Misogyny Nepotism Pedophobia Perpetualforeigner Pregnancy Sectarianism Supremacism Black White Transphobia Non-binary Transmisogyny Transmen Vegaphobia Xenophobia Religious Ahmadiyya Atheism BaháʼíFaith Buddhism Catholicism Christianity post–ColdWarera Druze FalunGong Hinduism Persecution Untouchability Islam Persecution Jehovah'sWitnesses Judaism 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Second-generationgenderbias Snobbery Socialexclusion Socialmodelofdisability Socialstigma Speciesism Stereotype threat Thetalk Whiteprivilege Woke vte Prejudice[1]canbeanaffectivefeelingtowardsapersonbasedontheirperceivedgroupmembership.[2]Thewordisoftenusedtorefertoapreconceived(usuallyunfavourable)evaluationorclassificationofanotherpersonbasedonthatperson'sperceivedpoliticalaffiliation,sex,gender,genderidentity,beliefs,values,socialclass,age,disability,religion,sexuality,race,ethnicity,language,nationality,culture,complexion,beauty,height,occupation,wealth,education,criminality,sport-teamaffiliation,musictastesorotherpersonalcharacteristics.[3] Theword"prejudice"canalsorefertounfoundedorpigeonholedbeliefs[4][5]anditmayapplyto"anyunreasonableattitudethatisunusuallyresistanttorationalinfluence".[6]GordonAllportdefinedprejudiceasa"feeling,favorableorunfavorable,towardapersonorthing,priorto,ornotbasedon,actualexperience".[7]Auestad(2015)definesprejudiceascharacterizedby"symbolictransfer",transferofavalue-ladenmeaningcontentontoasocially-formedcategoryandthenontoindividualswhoaretakentobelongtothatcategory,resistancetochange,andovergeneralization.[8] Contents 1Etymology 2Historicalapproaches 3Contemporarytheoriesandempiricalfindings 4TypesofPrejudice 4.1GenderIdentity 4.2Sexism 4.3Nationalism 4.4Classism 4.5Sexualdiscrimination 4.6Racism 4.6.1ScientificRacism 4.7Religiousdiscrimination 4.8Linguisticdiscrimination 4.9Neurologicaldiscrimination 4.9.1High-Functioning 4.9.2Low-Functioning 5Multiculturalism 6Reducingprejudice 6.1Thecontacthypothesis 6.2Empiricalresearch 6.3Problemswithpsychologicalmodels 7Seealso 8References 9Furtherreading Etymology[edit] Thissectionisempty.Youcanhelpbyaddingtoit.(May2022) Historicalapproaches[edit] Thefirstpsychologicalresearchconductedonprejudiceoccurredinthe1920s.Thisresearchattemptedtoprovewhitesupremacy.Onearticlefrom1925whichreviewed73studiesonraceconcludedthatthestudiesseemed"toindicatethementalsuperiorityofthewhiterace".[9]Thesestudies,alongwithotherresearch,ledmanypsychologiststoviewprejudiceasanaturalresponsetoracesbelievedtobeinferior. Inthe1930sand1940s,thisperspectivebegantochangeduetotheincreasingconcernaboutanti-SemitismduetotheideologyoftheNazis.Atthetime,theoristsviewedprejudiceaspathologicalandtheythuslookedforpersonalitysyndromeslinkedwithracism.TheodorAdornobelievedthatprejudicestemmedfromanauthoritarianpersonality;hebelievedthatpeoplewithauthoritarianpersonalitieswerethemostlikelytobeprejudicedagainstgroupsoflowerstatus.Hedescribedauthoritariansas"rigidthinkerswhoobeyedauthority,sawtheworldasblackandwhite,andenforcedstrictadherencetosocialrulesandhierarchies".[10] In1954,GordonAllport,inhisclassicworkTheNatureofPrejudice,linkedprejudicetocategoricalthinking.Allportclaimedthatprejudiceisanaturalandnormalprocessforhumans.Accordingtohim,"Thehumanmindmustthinkwiththeaidofcategories...Onceformed,categoriesarethebasisfornormalprejudgment.Wecannotpossiblyavoidthisprocess.Orderlylivingdependsuponit."[11] Inthe1970s,researchbegantoshowthatprejudicetendstobebasedonfavoritismtowardsone'sowngroups,ratherthannegativefeelingstowardsanothergroup.AccordingtoMarilynBrewer,prejudice"maydevelopnotbecauseoutgroupsarehated,butbecausepositiveemotionssuchasadmiration,sympathy,andtrustarereservedfortheingroup".[12] In1979,ThomasPettigrewdescribedtheultimateattributionerroranditsroleinprejudice.Theultimateattributionerroroccurswheningroupmembers"(1)attributenegativeoutgroupbehaviortodispositionalcauses(morethantheywouldforidenticalingroupbehavior),and(2)attributepositiveoutgroupbehaviortooneormoreofthefollowingcauses:(a)aflukeorexceptionalcase,(b)luckorspecialadvantage,(c)highmotivationandeffort,and(d)situationalfactors"/[10] Youeng-Bruehl(1996)arguedthatprejudicecannotbetreatedinthesingular;oneshouldratherspeakofdifferentprejudicesascharacteristicofdifferentcharactertypes.Hertheorydefinesprejudicesasbeingsocialdefences,distinguishingbetweenanobsessionalcharacterstructure,primarilylinkedwithanti-semitism,hystericalcharacters,primarilyassociatedwithracism,andnarcissisticcharacters,linkedwithsexism.[13] Contemporarytheoriesandempiricalfindings[edit] Theout-grouphomogeneityeffectistheperceptionthatmembersofanout-grouparemoresimilar(homogenous)thanmembersofthein-group.SocialpsychologistsQuattroneandJonesconductedastudydemonstratingthiswithstudentsfromtherivalschoolsPrincetonUniversityandRutgersUniversity.[14]Studentsateachschoolwereshownvideosofotherstudentsfromeachschoolchoosingatypeofmusictolistentoforanauditoryperceptionstudy.Thentheparticipantswereaskedtoguesswhatpercentageofthevideotapedstudents'classmateswouldchoosethesame.Participantspredictedamuchgreatersimilaritybetweenout-groupmembers(therivalschool)thanbetweenmembersoftheirin-group. Thejustification-suppressionmodelofprejudicewascreatedbyChristianCrandallandAmyEshleman.[15]Thismodelexplainsthatpeoplefaceaconflictbetweenthedesiretoexpressprejudiceandthedesiretomaintainapositiveself-concept.Thisconflictcausespeopletosearchforjustificationfordislikinganout-group,andtousethatjustificationtoavoidnegativefeelings(cognitivedissonance)aboutthemselveswhentheyactontheirdislikeoftheout-group. Therealisticconflicttheorystatesthatcompetitionbetweenlimitedresourcesleadstoincreasednegativeprejudicesanddiscrimination.Thiscanbeseenevenwhentheresourceisinsignificant.IntheRobber'sCaveexperiment,[16]negativeprejudiceandhostilitywascreatedbetweentwosummercampsaftersportscompetitionsforsmallprizes.Thehostilitywaslessenedafterthetwocompetingcampswereforcedtocooperateontaskstoachieveacommongoal. Anothercontemporarytheoryistheintegratedthreattheory(ITT),whichwasdevelopedbyWalterGStephan.[17]Itdrawsfromandbuildsuponseveralotherpsychologicalexplanationsofprejudiceandingroup/outgroupbehaviour,suchastherealisticconflicttheoryandsymbolicracism.[18]Italsousesthesocialidentitytheoryperspectiveasthebasisforitsvalidity;thatis,itassumesthatindividualsoperateinagroup-basedcontextwheregroupmembershipsformapartofindividualidentity.ITTpositsthatoutgroupprejudiceanddiscriminationiscausedwhenindividualsperceiveanoutgrouptobethreateninginsomeway.ITTdefinesfourthreats: Realisticthreats Symbolicthreats Intergroupanxiety Negativestereotypes Realisticthreatsaretangible,suchascompetitionforanaturalresourceorathreattoincome.Symbolicthreatsarisefromaperceiveddifferenceinculturalvaluesbetweengroupsoraperceivedimbalanceofpower(forexample,aningroupperceivinganoutgroup'sreligionasincompatiblewiththeirs).Intergroupanxietyisafeelingofuneasinessexperiencedinthepresenceofanoutgrouporoutgroupmember,whichconstitutesathreatbecauseinteractionswithothergroupscausenegativefeelings(e.g.,athreattocomfortableinteractions).Negativestereotypesaresimilarlythreats,inthatindividualsanticipatenegativebehaviourfromoutgroupmembersinlinewiththeperceivedstereotype(forexample,thattheoutgroupisviolent).Oftenthesestereotypesareassociatedwithemotionssuchasfearandanger.ITTdiffersfromotherthreattheoriesbyincludingintergroupanxietyandnegativestereotypesasthreattypes. Additionally,socialdominancetheorystatesthatsocietycanbeviewedasgroup-basedhierarchies.Incompetitionforscarceresourcessuchashousingoremployment,dominantgroupscreateprejudiced"legitimizingmyths"toprovidemoralandintellectualjustificationfortheirdominantpositionoverothergroupsandvalidatetheirclaimoverthelimitedresources.[19]Legitimizingmyths,suchasdiscriminatoryhiringpracticesorbiasedmeritnorms,worktomaintaintheseprejudicedhierarchies. Prejudicecanbeacentralcontributingfactortodepression.[20]Thiscanoccurinsomeonewhoisaprejudicevictim,beingthetargetofsomeoneelse'sprejudice,orwhenpeoplehaveprejudiceagainstthemselvesthatcausestheirowndepression. PaulBloomarguesthatwhileprejudicecanbeirrationalandhaveterribleconsequences,itisnaturalandoftenquiterational.Thisisbecauseprejudicesarebasedonthehumantendencytocategoriseobjectsandpeoplebasedonpriorexperience.Thismeanspeoplemakepredictionsaboutthingsinacategorybasedonpriorexperiencewiththatcategory,withtheresultingpredictionsusuallybeingaccurate(thoughnotalways).Bloomarguesthatthisprocessofcategorisationandpredictionisnecessaryforsurvivalandnormalinteraction,quotingWilliamHazlitt,whostated"Withouttheaidofprejudiceandcustom,Ishouldnotbeabletofindmywaymyacrosstheroom;norknowhowtoconductmyselfinanycircumstances,norwhattofeelinanyrelationoflife".[21] Inrecentyears,researchershavearguedthatthestudyofprejudicehasbeentraditionallytoonarrow.Itisarguedthatsinceprejudiceisdefinedasanegativeaffecttowardsmembersofagroup,therearemanygroupsagainstwhomprejudiceisacceptable(suchasrapists,menwhoabandontheirfamilies,pedophiles,neo-Nazis,drink-drivers,queuejumpers,murderersetc.),yetsuchprejudicesaren'tstudied.Ithasbeensuggestedthatresearchershavefocusedtoomuchonanevaluativeapproachtoprejudice,ratherthanadescriptiveapproach,whichlooksattheactualpsychologicalmechanismsbehindprejudicedattitudes.Itisarguedthatthislimitsresearchtotargetsofprejudicetogroupsdeemedtobereceivingunjusttreatment,whilegroupsresearchersdeemtreatedjustlyordeservedlyofprejudiceareoverlooked.Asaresult,thescopeofprejudicehasbeguntoexpandinresearch,allowingamoreaccurateanalysisoftherelationshipbetweenpsychologicaltraitsandprejudice.[22][excessivecitations] Someresearchershadadvocatedlookingintounderstandingprejudicefromtheperspectiveofcollectivevaluesthanjustasbiasedpsychologicalmechanismanddifferentconceptionsofprejudice,includingwhatlaypeoplethinkconstitutesprejudice.[23][24]Thisisduetoconcernsthatthewayprejudicehasbeenoperationaliseddoesnotfititspsychologicaldefinitionandthatitisoftenusedtoindicateabeliefisfaultyorunjustifiedwithoutactuallyprovingthistobethecase.[25][26] TypesofPrejudice[edit] Onecanbeprejudicedagainstorhaveapreconceivednotionaboutsomeoneduetoanycharacteristictheyfindtobeunusualorundesirable.Afewcommonplaceexamplesofprejudicearethosebasedonsomeone'srace,gender,nationality,socialstatus,sexualorientation,orreligiousaffiliation,andcontroversiesmayarisefromanygiventopic.[citationneeded] GenderIdentity[edit] Mainarticles:GenderIdentityandTransphobia Transgenderandnon-binarypeoplecanbediscriminatedagainstbecausetheyidentifywithagenderthatdoesnotalignwiththetheirassignedsexatbirth.Refusaltocallthembytheirpreferredpronouns,orclaimsthattheyarenotthegendertheyidentifyascouldbeconsidereddiscriminationifitoccursintherightcircumstances.Especiallyifthevictimofthisdiscriminationhasexpressedrepetitivelywhattheirpreferredidentityis.[citationneeded] GenderIdentityisnowconsideredaprotectedcategoryofdiscrimination.Therefore,severecasesofthisdiscriminationcanleadtocriminalpenaltyorprosecution[citationneeded](nottobeconfusedwithpersecution;atermthatissynonymouswithdiscrimination.[citationneeded]),andworkplacesarerequiredtoprotectagainstdiscriminationbasedonGenderIdentity.[citationneeded] Sexism[edit] Mainarticle:Sexism Sexism,alsocalledgenderdiscrimination,isprejudiceordiscriminationbasedonaperson'ssexorgender(whilerelated,thesetwoconceptsarenotthesame.Sexisbasedonanassessmentofbiologicalfactors,whilegenderrelatestoone'sidentity.[citationneeded].)Sexismcanaffectanygender,butitisparticularlydocumentedasaffectingwomenandgirlsmoreoften(morebroadly,thefemale[citationneeded][relatestosex,butcanbeusedtodescribethecorrelatedgenderofHomosapiens.Although,itdoesnotalwaysmatch.See:Transgender,Non-binary,Genderidentity,ortheGenderidentitysectionofthispageformoreinformation[citationneeded]]).[27]Thediscussionofsuchsentiments,andactualgenderdifferencesandstereotypescontinuetobecontroversialtopics.Throughouthistory,womenhavebeenthoughtofasbeingsubordinatetomen,oftenbeingignoredinareasliketheacademiaorbelittledaltogether.Traditionally,menwerethoughtofasbeingmorecapablethanwomen,mentallyandphysically.[28]Inthefieldofsocialpsychology,prejudicestudieslikethe"WhoLikesCompetentWomen"studyledthewayforgender-basedresearchonprejudice.[28]Thisresultedintwobroadthemesorfocusesinthefield:thefirstbeingafocusonattitudestowardgenderequality,andthesecondfocusingonpeople'sbeliefsaboutmenandwomen.[28]Today,studiesbasedonsexismcontinueinthefieldofpsychologyasresearcherstrytounderstandhowpeople'sthoughts,feelings,andbehaviorsinfluenceandareinfluencedbyothers.[citationneeded] Misandry(prejudiceordiscriminationtowardsmen)andmisogyny(prejudiceordiscriminationtowardswomen)aretwoseparateformsofsexismbasedonthegenderofthevictim.[citationneeded]Although,misandryismorerarelyused,anditsexistenceismoreuptodebatethanmisogyny,itisstillaformofsexism.[citationneeded] Nationalism[edit] Mainarticle:Nationalism Nationalismisasentimentbasedoncommonculturalcharacteristicsthatbindsapopulationandoftenproducesapolicyofnationalindependenceorseparatism.[29]Itsuggestsa"sharedidentity"amongstanation'speoplethatminimizesdifferenceswithinthegroupandemphasizesperceivedboundariesbetweenthegroupandnon-members.[30]Thisleadstotheassumptionthatmembersofthenationhavemoreincommonthantheyactuallydo,thattheyare"culturallyunified",evenifinjusticeswithinthenationbasedondifferenceslikestatusandraceexist.[30]Duringtimesofconflictbetweenonenationandanother,nationalismiscontroversialsinceitmayfunctionasabufferforcriticismwhenitcomestothenation'sownproblemssinceitmakesthenation'sownhierarchiesandinternalconflictsappeartobenatural.[30]Itmayalsoserveawayofrallyingthepeopleofthenationinsupportofaparticularpoliticalgoal.[30]Nationalismusuallyinvolvesapushforconformity,obedience,andsolidarityamongstthenation'speopleandcanresultnotonlyinfeelingsofpublicresponsibilitybutalsoinanarrowsenseofcommunityduetotheexclusionofthosewhoareconsideredoutsiders.[30]Sincetheidentityofnationalistsislinkedtotheirallegiancetothestate,thepresenceofstrangerswhodonotsharethisallegiancemayresultinhostility.[30] Classism[edit] Mainarticle:Classism Classismisdefinedbydictionary.comas"abiasedordiscriminatoryattitudeondistinctionsmadebetweensocialoreconomicclasses".[31]Theideaofseparatingpeoplebasedonclassiscontroversialinitself.Somearguethateconomicinequalityisanunavoidableaspectofsociety,sotherewillalwaysbearulingclass.[32]Somealsoarguethat,evenwithinthemostegalitariansocietiesinhistory,someformofrankingbasedonsocialstatustakesplace.Therefore,onemaybelievetheexistenceofsocialclassesisanaturalfeatureofsociety.[33] Othersarguethecontrary.Accordingtoanthropologicalevidence,forthemajorityofthetimethehumanspecieshasbeeninexistence,humanshavelivedinamannerinwhichthelandandresourceswerenotprivatelyowned.[33]Also,whensocialrankingdidoccur,itwasnotantagonisticorhostilelikethecurrentclasssystem.[33]Thisevidencehasbeenusedtosupporttheideathattheexistenceofasocialclasssystemisunnecessary.Overall,societyhasneithercometoaconsensusoverthenecessityoftheclasssystem,norbeenabletodealwiththehostilityandprejudicethatoccursbecauseoftheclasssystem. Sexualdiscrimination[edit] Mainarticles:SexualorientationdiscriminationandHomophobia One'ssexualorientationisthe"directionofone'ssexualinteresttowardmembersofthesame,opposite,orbothsexes".[34]Likemostminoritygroups,homosexualsandbisexualsarenotimmunetoprejudiceorstereotypesfromthemajoritygroup.Theymayexperiencehatredfromothersduetotheirsexualorientation;atermforsuchintensehatredbaseduponone'ssexualorientationishomophobia."Queer"maybeusedasanumbrellatermforindividualsintheLGBT+(Lesbian,Gay,Bisexual,Transgenderandothers).However,morespecificwordsfordiscriminationdirectedtowardsspecificsexualitiesexistunderothernames,suchasbiphobia.[35] Duetowhatsocialpsychologistscallthevividnesseffect,atendencytonoticeonlycertaindistinctivecharacteristics,themajoritypopulationtendstodrawconclusionslikegaysflaunttheirsexuality.[36]Suchimagesmaybeeasilyrecalledtomindduetotheirvividness,makingithardertoappraisetheentiresituation.[36]Themajoritypopulationmaynotonlythinkthathomosexualsflaunttheirsexualityorare"toogay",butmayalsoerroneouslybelievethathomosexualsareeasytoidentifyandlabelasbeinggayorlesbianwhencomparedtootherswhoarenothomosexual.[37] Theideaofheterosexualprivilegehasbeenknowntoflourishinsociety.Researchandquestionnairesareformulatedtofitthemajority;i.e.,heterosexuals.Thestatusofassimilatingorconformingtoheterosexualstandardsmaybereferredtoas"heteronormativity",oritmayrefertoideologythattheprimaryoronlysocialnormisbeingheterosexual.[38] IntheUSlegalsystem,allgroupsarenotalwaysconsideredequalunderthelaw.Thegayorqueerpanicdefenseisatermfordefensesorargumentsusedtodefendtheaccusedincourtcases,thatdefenselawyersmayusetojustifytheirclient'shatecrimeagainstsomeonethattheclientthoughtwasLGBT.Thecontroversycomeswhendefenselawyersusethevictim'sminoritystatusasanexcuseorjustificationforcrimesthatweredirectedagainstthem.Thismaybeseenasanexampleofvictimblaming.Onemethodofthisdefense,homosexualpanicdisorder,istoclaimthatthevictim'ssexualorientation,bodymovementpatterns(suchastheirwalkingpatternsorhowtheydance),orappearancethatisassociatedwithaminoritysexualorientationprovokedaviolentreactioninthedefendant.Thisisnotaprovendisorder,isnolongerrecognizedbytheDSM,and,therefore,isnotadisorderthatismedicallyrecognized,butitisatermtoexplaincertainactsofviolence.[39] Researchshowsthatdiscriminationonthebasisofsexualorientationisapowerfulfeatureofmanylabormarkets.Forexample,studiesshowthatgaymenearn10–32%lessthanheterosexualmenintheUnitedStates,andthatthereissignificantdiscriminationinhiringonthebasisofsexualorientationinmanylabormarkets.[40] Racism[edit] Mainarticle:Racism Racismisdefinedasthebeliefthatphysicalcharacteristicsdetermineculturaltraits,andthatracialcharacteristicsmakesomegroupssuperior.[41]Byseparatingpeopleintohierarchiesbasedupontheirrace,ithasbeenarguedthatunequaltreatmentamongthedifferentgroupsofpeopleisjustandfairduetotheirgeneticdifferences.[41]Racismcanoccuramongstanygroupthatcanbeidentifiedbaseduponphysicalfeaturesorevencharacteristicsoftheirculture.[41]Thoughpeoplemaybelumpedtogetherandcalledaspecificrace,everyonedoesnotfitneatlyintosuchcategories,makingithardtodefineanddescribearaceaccurately.[41] ScientificRacism[edit] ScientificracismbegantoflourishintheeighteenthcenturyandwasgreatlyinfluencedbyCharlesDarwin'sevolutionarystudies,aswellasideastakenfromthewritingsofphilosopherslikeAristotle;forexample,Aristotlebelievedintheconceptof"naturalslaves".[41]Thisconceptfocusesonthenecessityofhierarchiesandhowsomepeopleareboundtobeonthebottomofthepyramid.Thoughracismhasbeenaprominenttopicinhistory,thereisstilldebateoverwhetherraceactuallyexists,[citationneeded]makingthediscussionofraceacontroversialtopic.Eventhoughtheconceptofraceisstillbeingdebated,theeffectsofracismareapparent.Racismandotherformsofprejudicecanaffectaperson'sbehavior,thoughts,andfeelings,andsocialpsychologistsstrivetostudytheseeffects. Religiousdiscrimination[edit] Mainarticle:Religiousdiscrimination Whilevariousreligionsteachtheirmemberstobetolerantofthosewhoaredifferentandtohavecompassion,throughouthistorytherehavebeenwars,pogromsandotherformsofviolencemotivatedbyhatredofreligiousgroups.[42] Inthemodernworld,researchersinwestern,educated,industrialized,richanddemocraticcountrieshavedonevariousstudiesexploringtherelationshipbetweenreligionandprejudice;thusfar,theyhavereceivedmixedresults.AstudydonewithUScollegestudentsfoundthatthosewhoreportedreligiontobeveryinfluentialintheirlivesseemtohaveahigherrateofprejudicethanthosewhoreportednotbeingreligious.[42]Otherstudiesfoundthatreligionhasapositiveeffectonpeopleasfarasprejudiceisconcerned.[42]Thisdifferenceinresultsmaybeattributedtothedifferencesinreligiouspracticesorreligiousinterpretationsamongsttheindividuals.Thosewhopractice"institutionalizedreligion",whichfocusesmoreonsocialandpoliticalaspectsofreligiousevents,aremorelikelytohaveanincreaseinprejudice.[43]Thosewhopractice"interiorizedreligion",inwhichbelieversdevotethemselvestotheirbeliefs,aremostlikelytohaveadecreaseinprejudice.[43] Linguisticdiscrimination[edit] Mainarticle:Linguisticdiscrimination Individualsorgroupsmaybetreatedunfairlybasedsolelyontheiruseoflanguage.Thisuseoflanguagemayincludetheindividual'snativelanguageorothercharacteristicsoftheperson'sspeech,suchasanaccentordialect,thesizeofvocabulary(whetherthepersonusescomplexandvariedwords),andsyntax.Itmayalsoinvolveaperson'sabilityorinabilitytouseonelanguageinsteadofanother.[citationneeded] Inthemid-1980s,linguistToveSkutnabb-Kangascapturedthisideaofdiscriminationbasedonlanguageastheconceptoflinguicism.Kangasdefinedlinguicismastheideologiesandstructuresusedto"legitimate,effectuate,andreproduceunequaldivisionofpowerandresources(bothmaterialandnon-material)betweengroupswhicharedefinedonthebasisoflanguage".[44] Neurologicaldiscrimination[edit] Mainarticle:Neurodiversity Seealso:Ableism High-Functioning[edit] Broadlyspeaking,attributionoflowsocialstatustothosewhodonotconformtoneurotypicalexpectationsofpersonalityandbehaviour.Thiscanmanifestthroughassumptionof'disability'statustothosewhoarehighfunctioningenoughtoexistoutsideofdiagnosticcriteria,yetdonotdesireto(orareunableto)conformtheirbehaviourtoconventionalpatterns.Thisisacontroversialandsomewhatcontemporaryconcept;withvariousdisciplinaryapproachespromotingconflictingmessageswhatnormalityconstitutes,thedegreeofacceptableindividualdifferencewithinthatcategory,andtheprecisecriteriaforwhatconstitutesmedicaldisorder.Thishasbeenmostprominentinthecaseofhigh-functioningautism,[45]wheredirectcognitivebenefitsincreasinglyappeartocomeattheexpenseofsocialintelligence.[46] Discriminationmayalsoextendtootherhighfunctioningindividualscarryingpathologicalphenotypes,suchasthosewithattentiondeficithyperactivitydisorderandbipolarspectrumdisorders.Inthesecases,thereareindicationsthatperceived(oractual)sociallydisadvantageouscognitivetraitsaredirectlycorrelatedwithadvantageouscognitivetraitsinotherdomains,notablycreativityanddivergentthinking,[47]andyetthesestrengthsmightbecomesystematicallyoverlooked.Thecasefor"neurologicaldiscrimination"assuchliesintheexpectationthatone'sprofessionalcapacitymaybejudgedbythequalityofonessocialinteraction,whichcaninsuchcasesbeaninaccurateanddiscriminatorymetricforemploymentsuitability. Sincetherearemovesbysomeexpertstohavethesehigher-functioningextremesreclassifiedasextensionsofhumanpersonality,[48]anylegitimisationofdiscriminationagainstthesegroupswouldfittheverydefinitionofprejudice,asmedicalvalidationforsuchdiscriminationbecomesredundant.Recentadvancementsinbehaviouralgeneticsandneurosciencehavemadethisaveryrelevantissueofdiscussion,withexistingframeworksrequiringsignificantoverhaultoaccommodatethestrengthoffindingsoverthelastdecade.[citationneeded] Low-Functioning[edit] Assumptionsmaybemadeabouttheintelligenceorvalueofindividualswhohaveorexhibitbehaviorsofmentaldisordersorconditions.Individualswhohaveadifficulttimeassimilatingorfittingintoneurotypicalstandardsandsocietymaybelabel"Low-Functioning". Peoplewithneurologicaldisordersorconditionsobservedtohavelowintelligence,lackofself-control,suicidalbehavior,oranynumberoffactorsmaybediscriminatedonthisbasis.Institutionssuchasmentalasylums,NaziConcentrationCamps,unethicalpediatricresearch/carefacilities,andeugenicslabshavebeenusedtocarryoutdangerousexperimentsortotorturetheindividualsinvolved. Mostdiscriminationtodayischaracterizedbyindividualsmakingcommentstowardslow-functioningindividualsorbyharmingthemphysicallybythemselves,butsomeinstitutionspracticeunsafeactivitiesontheseindividuals. Multiculturalism[edit] Mainarticle:Multiculturalism Humanshaveanevolvedpropensitytothinkcategoricallyaboutsocialgroups,manifestedincognitiveprocesseswithbroadimplicationsforpublicandpoliticalendorsementofmulticulturalpolicy,accordingtopsychologistsRichardJ.CrispandRoseMeleady.[49]Theypostulatedacognitive-evolutionaryaccountofhumanadaptationtosocialdiversitythatexplainsgeneralresistancetomulticulturalism,andofferareorientingcallforscholarsandpolicy-makerswhoseekintervention-basedsolutionstotheproblemofprejudice. Reducingprejudice[edit] Thecontacthypothesis[edit] Thecontacthypothesispredictsthatprejudicecanonlybereducedwhenin-groupandout-groupmembersarebroughttogether.[50][51]Inparticular,therearesixconditionsthatmustbemettoreduceprejudice,aswerecultivatedinElliotAronson's"jigsaw"teachingtechnique.[50]First,thein-andout-groupsmusthaveadegreeofmutualinterdependence.Second,bothgroupsneedtoshareacommongoal.Third,thetwogroupsmusthaveequalstatus.Fourth,theremustbefrequentopportunitiesforinformalandinterpersonalcontactbetweengroups.Fifth,thereshouldbemultiplecontactsbetweenthein-andtheout-groups.Finally,socialnormsofequalitymustexistandbepresenttofosterprejudicereduction. Empiricalresearch[edit] AcademicsThomasPettigrewandLindaTroppconductedameta-analysisof515studiesinvolvingaquarterofamillionparticipantsin38nationstoexaminehowintergroupcontactreducesprejudice.Theyfoundthatthreemediatorsareofparticularimportance:Intergroupcontactreducesprejudiceby(1)enhancingknowledgeabouttheoutgroup,(2)reducinganxietyaboutintergroupcontact,and(3)increasingempathyandperspective-taking.Whileallthreeofthesemediatorshadmediationaleffects,themediationalvalueofincreasedknowledgewaslessstrongthananxietyreductionandempathy.[52]Inaddition,someindividualsconfrontdiscriminationwhentheyseeithappen,withresearchfindingthatindividualsaremorelikelytoconfrontwhentheyperceivebenefitstothemselves,andarelesslikelytoconfrontwhenconcernedaboutothers'reactions.[53] Problemswithpsychologicalmodels[edit] Oneproblemwiththenotionthatprejudiceevolvedbecauseofanecessitytosimplifysocialclassificationsbecauseoflimitedbraincapacityandatthesametimecanbemitigatedthrougheducationisthatthetwocontradicteachother,thecombinationamountingtosayingthattheproblemisashortageofhardwareandatthesametimecanbemitigatedbystuffingevenmoresoftwareintothehardwareonejustsaidwasoverloadedwithtoomuchsoftware.[54]Thedistinctionbetweenmen'shostilitytooutgroupmenbeingbasedondominanceandaggressionandwomen'shostilitytooutgroupmenbeingbasedonfearofsexualcoercioniscriticizedwithreferencetothehistoricalexamplethatHitlerandothermaleNazisbelievedthatintergroupsexwasworsethanmurderandwoulddestroythempermanentlywhichtheydidnotbelievethatwaritselfwould,i.e.aviewofoutgroupmalethreatthatevolutionarypsychologyconsiderstobeafemaleviewandnotamaleview.[55][better source needed] Seealso[edit] WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoPrejudice. Lookupprejudice,prejudgment,orbigotryinWiktionary,thefreedictionary. WikiquotehasquotationsrelatedtoPrejudice. Wikiquotehasquotationsrelatedtobigotry. Ambivalentprejudice Benevolentprejudice Bias Collectiveresponsibility Commoningroupidentity Conformity Fascism Hatecrime Hostileprejudice Idéefixe(psychology) Milgramexperiment Nazism Politicalcorrectness Prejudicefromanevolutionaryperspective Presumptionofguilt Reversediscrimination Socialinfluence Stigmamanagement Suspensionofjudgment Terrorism Tolerance Totalitarianism References[edit] ^Douglas(Ph.D.),James(1872).Englishetymology.p. 67. ^"DefinitionofPREJUDICE".www.merriam-webster.com.Retrieved2021-09-21. ^Bethlehem,DouglasW.(2015-06-19).ASocialPsychologyofPrejudice.PsychologyPress.ISBN 978-1-317-54855-3. ^Turiel,Elliot(2007)."Commentary:TheProblemsofPrejudice,Discrimination,andExclusion".InternationalJournalofBehavioralDevelopment.31(5):419–422.doi:10.1177/0165025407083670.S2CID 145744721. ^WilliamJameswrote:"Agreatmanypeoplethinktheyarethinkingwhentheyaremerelyrearrangingtheirprejudices."QuotableQuotes–CourtesyofTheFreemanInstitute. ^Rosnow,RalphL.(March1972)."PoultryandPrejudice".PsychologistToday.5(10):53–6. ^Allport,Gordon(1979).TheNatureofPrejudice.PerseusBooksPublishing.p. 6.ISBN 978-0-201-00179-2. ^ Auestad,Lene(2015).Respect,Plurality,andPrejudice(1 ed.).London:Karnac.pp. xxi–xxii.ISBN 9781782201397. ^Garth,T.Rooster.(1930)."Areviewofracepsychology".PsychologicalBulletin.27(5):329–56.doi:10.1037/h0075064. ^abPlous,S."ThePsychologyofPrejudice".UnderstandingPrejudice.org.Web.07Apr.2011.[verificationneeded] ^Allport,G.W.(1954).TheNatureofPrejudice.Reading,MA:Addison-Wesley.[page needed] ^Brewer,MarilynnB.(1999)."ThePsychologyofPrejudice:IngroupLoveandOutgroupHate?".JournalofSocialIssues.55(3):429–44.doi:10.1111/0022-4537.00126. ^Young-Bruehl,Elizabeth(1996).AnAnatomyofPrejudices.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress.p. 38.ISBN 9780674031913. ^Quattrone,GeorgeA.;Jones,EdwardE.(1980)."Theperceptionofvariabilitywithinin-groupsandout-groups:Implicationsforthelawofsmallnumbers".JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology.38:141–52.doi:10.1037/0022-3514.38.1.141. ^Crandall,ChristianS.;Eshleman,Amy(2003)."Ajustification-suppressionmodeloftheexpressionandexperienceofprejudice".PsychologicalBulletin.129(3):414–46.doi:10.1037/0033-2909.129.3.414.PMID 12784937. ^Sherif,Muzafer;Harvey,O.J.;White,B.Jack;Hood,WilliamR.;Sherif,CarolynW.(1988).TheRobbersCaveExperiment:IntergroupConflictandCooperation.Middletown,Connecticut:WesleyanUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-8195-6194-7.[page needed] ^Stephan,CookieWhite;Stephan,WalterC.;Demitrakis,KatherineM.;Yamada,AnnMarie;Clason,DennisL.(2000)."Women'sAttitudesTowardMen:anIntegratedThreatTheoryApproach".PsychologyofWomenQuarterly.24:63–73.doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2000.tb01022.x.S2CID 143906177. ^Riek,BlakeM.;Mania,EricW.;Gaertner,SamuelL.(2006)."IntergroupThreatandOutgroupAttitudes:AMeta-AnalyticReview".PersonalityandSocialPsychologyReview.10(4):336–53.doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr1004_4.PMID 17201592.S2CID 144762865. ^Sidanius,Jim;Pratto,Felicia;Bobo,Lawrence(1996)."Racism,conservatism,AffirmativeAction,andintellectualsophistication:Amatterofprincipledconservatismorgroupdominance?".JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology.70(3):476–90.CiteSeerX 10.1.1.474.1114.doi:10.1037/0022-3514.70.3.476. ^Cox,WilliamT.L.;Abramson,LynY.;Devine,PatriciaG.;Hollon,StevenD.(2012)."Stereotypes,Prejudice,andDepression:TheIntegratedPerspective".PerspectivesonPsychologicalScience.7(5):427–49.doi:10.1177/1745691612455204.PMID 26168502.S2CID 1512121. ^Bloom,Paul"Canprejudiceeverbeagoodthing"January2014,accessed02/12/17 ^Crandell,ChristianS.;Ferguson,MarkA.;Bahns,AngelaJ.(2013)."Chapter3:WhenWeSeePrejudice".InStangor,Charles;Crendeall,ChristianS.(eds.).StereotypingandPrejudice.PsychologyPress.ISBN 978-1848726444.