Monroe Doctrine - Wikipedia

The Monroe Doctrine was a United States foreign policy position that opposed European colonialism in the Western Hemisphere. It held that any intervention ... MonroeDoctrine FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch USforeignpolicyregardingLatinAmericancountriesin1823 Forthe"FortMonroeDoctrine",seeContraband(AmericanCivilWar). U.S.PresidentJamesMonroeSecretaryofStateJohnQuincyAdams,authoroftheMonroeDoctrine TheMonroeDoctrinewasaUnitedStatesforeignpolicypositionthatopposedEuropeancolonialismintheWesternHemisphere.ItheldthatanyinterventioninthepoliticalaffairsoftheAmericasbyforeignpowerswasapotentiallyhostileactagainsttheU.S.[1]ThedoctrinewascentraltoU.S.foreignpolicyformuchofthe19thandearly20thcenturies.[2] PresidentJamesMonroefirstarticulatedthedoctrineonDecember2,1823duringhisseventhannualStateoftheUnionAddresstoCongress(thoughitwouldnotbenamedafterhimuntil1850).[3]Atthetime,nearlyallSpanishcoloniesintheAmericashadeitherachievedorwereclosetoindependence.MonroeassertedthattheNewWorldandtheOldWorldweretoremaindistinctlyseparatespheresofinfluence,[4]andthusfurthereffortsbyEuropeanpowerstocontrolorinfluencesovereignstatesintheregionwouldbeviewedasathreattoU.S.security.[2][5]Inturn,theU.S.wouldrecognizeandnotinterferewithexistingEuropeancoloniesnormeddleintheinternalaffairsofEuropeancountries. Bytheendofthe19thcentury,Monroe'sdeclarationwasseenasadefiningmomentintheforeignpolicyoftheUnitedStatesandoneofitslongest-standingtenets.Theintentandeffectofthedoctrinepersistedforoveracentury,withonlysmallvariations,andwouldbeinvokedbymanyU.S.statesmenandseveralU.S.presidents,includingUlyssesS.Grant,TheodoreRoosevelt,JohnF.Kennedy,andRonaldReagan. After1898,theMonroeDoctrinewasreinterpretedbyLatinAmericanlawyersandintellectualsaspromotingmultilateralismandnon-intervention.In1933,underPresidentFranklinD.Roosevelt,theU.S.affirmedthisnewinterpretation,namelythroughco-foundingtheOrganizationofAmericanStates.[6]Intothe21stcentury,thedoctrinecontinuestobevariablydenounced,reinstated,orreinterpreted. Contents 1SeedsoftheMonroeDoctrine 2Doctrine 3Effects 3.1Internationalresponse 3.2LatinAmericanreaction 3.3Post-Bolívarevents 3.4"BigBrother" 3.5"OlneyCorollary" 3.6Canada 3.7"RooseveltCorollary" 3.8LodgeResolution 3.9GlobalMonroeDoctrine 3.10ClarkMemorandum 3.11WorldWarII 3.12LatinAmericanreinterpretation 3.13ColdWar 3.1421st-centuryapproaches 3.14.1KerryDoctrine 3.14.2AmericaFirst 4Criticism 5Seealso 6References 7Furtherreading 8Externallinks SeedsoftheMonroeDoctrine TheChileanDeclarationofIndependenceon18February1818 DespitetheUnitedStates'beginningsasanisolationistcountry,thefoundationoftheMonroeDoctrinewasalreadybeinglaidevenduringGeorgeWashington'spresidency.AccordingtoS.E.Morison,"asearlyas1783,then,theUnitedStatesadoptedthepolicyofisolationandannounceditsintentiontokeepoutofEurope.ThesupplementaryprincipleoftheMonroeDoctrine,thatEuropemustkeepoutofAmerica,wasstilloverthehorizon".[7] WhilenotspecificallytheMonroeDoctrine,AlexanderHamiltondesiredtocontrolthesphereofinfluenceintheWesternHemisphere,particularlyinNorthAmerica,[failedverification]butthiswasextendedtotheLatinAmericancoloniesbytheMonroeDoctrine.[8]ButHamilton,writingintheFederalistPapers,wasalreadywantingtoestablishtheUnitedStatesasaworldpowerandhopedthatitwouldsuddenlybecomestrongenoughtokeeptheEuropeanpowersoutsideoftheAmericas,despitethefactthattheEuropeancountriescontrolledmuchmoreoftheAmericasthantheU.S.herself.[7]HamiltonexpectedthattheUnitedStateswouldbecomethedominantpowerintheNewWorldandwould,inthefuture,actasanintermediarybetweentheEuropeanpowersandanynewcountriesblossomingneartheU.S.[7] AnotefromJamesMadison(ThomasJefferson'sSecretaryofStateandafuturepresident)totheU.S.ambassadortoSpain,expressedtheAmericanfederalgovernment’soppositiontofurtherterritorialacquisitionbyEuropeanpowers.[9]Madison'ssentimentmighthavebeenmeaninglessbecause,aswasnotedbefore,theEuropeanpowersheldmuchmoreterritoryincomparisontotheterritoryheldbytheU.S.AlthoughThomasJeffersonwaspro-French,inanattempttokeeptheBritish–FrenchrivalryouttheU.S.,thefederalgovernmentunderJeffersonmadeitcleartoitsambassadorsthattheU.S.wouldnotsupportanyfuturecolonizationeffortsontheNorthAmericancontinent. TheU.S.governmentfearedthevictoriousEuropeanpowersthatemergedfromtheCongressofVienna(1814–1815)wouldrevivemonarchicalgovernment.FrancehadalreadyagreedtorestoretheSpanishmonarchyinexchangeforCuba.[10]AstherevolutionaryNapoleonicWars(1803–1815)ended,Prussia,Austria,andRussiaformedtheHolyAlliancetodefendmonarchism.Inparticular,theHolyAllianceauthorizedmilitaryincursionstore-establishBourbonruleoverSpainanditscolonies,whichwereestablishingtheirindependence.[11]: 153–5  GreatBritainsharedthegeneralobjectiveoftheMonroeDoctrine,andevenwantedtodeclareajointstatementtokeepotherEuropeanpowersfromfurthercolonizingtheNewWorld.TheBritishfearedtheirtradewiththeNewWorldwouldbeharmediftheotherEuropeanpowersfurthercolonizedit.Infact,formanyyearsafterthedoctrinetookeffect,Britain,throughtheRoyalNavy,wasthesolenationenforcingit,theU.S.lackingsufficientnavalcapability.[8]TheU.S.resistedajointstatementbecauseoftherecentmemoryoftheWarof1812;however,theimmediateprovocationwastheRussianUkaseof1821[12]assertingrightstothePacificNorthwestandforbiddingnon-Russianshipsfromapproachingthecoast.[13][14] Doctrine ThefulldocumentoftheMonroeDoctrine,writtenchieflybyfuture-Presidentandthen-SecretaryofStateJohnQuincyAdams,islongandcouchedindiplomaticlanguage,butitsessenceisexpressedintwokeypassages.Thefirstistheintroductorystatement,whichassertsthattheNewWorldisnolongersubjecttocolonizationbytheEuropeancountries:[15] Theoccasionhasbeenjudgedproperforasserting,asaprincipleinwhichtherightsandinterestsoftheUnitedStatesareinvolved,thattheAmericancontinents,bythefreeandindependentconditionwhichtheyhaveassumedandmaintain,arehenceforthnottobeconsideredassubjectsforfuturecolonizationbyanyEuropeanpowers. Thesecondkeypassage,whichcontainsafullerstatementoftheDoctrine,isaddressedtothe"alliedpowers"ofEurope;itclarifiesthattheU.S.remainsneutralonexistingEuropeancoloniesintheAmericasbutisopposedto"interpositions"thatwouldcreatenewcoloniesamongthenewlyindependentSpanishAmericanrepublics:[5] Weoweit,therefore,tocandorandtotheamicablerelationsexistingbetweentheUnitedStatesandthosepowerstodeclarethatweshouldconsideranyattemptontheirparttoextendtheirsystemtoanyportionofthishemisphereasdangeroustoourpeaceandsafety.WiththeexistingcoloniesordependenciesofanyEuropeanpower,wehavenotinterferedandshallnotinterfere.ButwiththeGovernmentswhohavedeclaredtheirindependenceandmaintainedit,andwhoseindependencewehave,ongreatconsiderationandonjustprinciples,acknowledged,wecouldnotviewanyinterpositionforthepurposeofoppressingthem,orcontrollinginanyothermannertheirdestiny,byanyEuropeanpowerinanyotherlightthanasthemanifestationofanunfriendlydispositiontowardtheUnitedStates. Effects Gillam's1896politicalcartoon,UncleSamstandswithriflebetweentheEuropeansandLatinAmericans Internationalresponse BecausetheU.S.lackedbothacrediblenavyandarmyatthetime,thedoctrinewaslargelydisregardedinternationally.[4]PrinceMetternichofAustriawasangeredbythestatement,andwroteprivatelythatthedoctrinewasa"newactofrevolt"bytheU.S.thatwouldgrant"newstrengthtotheapostlesofseditionandreanimatethecourageofeveryconspirator."[11]: 156  Thedoctrine,however,metwithtacitBritishapproval.TheyenforcedittacticallyaspartofthewiderPaxBritannica,whichincludedenforcementoftheneutralityoftheseas.ThiswasinlinewiththedevelopingBritishpolicyoflaissez-fairefreetradeagainstmercantilism.Fast-growingBritishindustrysoughtmarketsforitsmanufacturedgoods,and,ifthenewlyindependentLatinAmericanstatesbecameSpanishcoloniesagain,BritishaccesstothesemarketswouldbecutoffbySpanishmercantilistpolicy.[16] LatinAmericanreaction ThereactioninLatinAmericatotheMonroeDoctrinewasgenerallyfavorablebutonsomeoccasionssuspicious.JohnA.Crow,authorofTheEpicofLatinAmerica,states,"SimónBolívarhimself,stillinthemidstofhislastcampaignagainsttheSpaniards,SantanderinColombia,RivadaviainArgentina,VictoriainMexico—leadersoftheemancipationmovementeverywhere—receivedMonroe'swordswithsincerestgratitude".[17]CrowarguesthattheleadersofLatinAmericawererealists.TheyknewthatthepresidentoftheUnitedStateswieldedverylittlepoweratthetime,particularlywithoutthebackingoftheBritishforces,andfiguredthattheMonroeDoctrinewasunenforceableiftheUnitedStatesstoodaloneagainsttheHolyAlliance.[17]Whiletheyappreciatedandpraisedtheirsupportinthenorth,theyknewthatthefutureoftheirindependencewasinthehandsoftheBritishandtheirpowerfulnavy.In1826,BolivarcalleduponhisCongressofPanamatohostthefirst"Pan-American"meeting.IntheeyesofBolivarandhismen,theMonroeDoctrinewastobecomenothingmorethanatoolofnationalpolicy.AccordingtoCrow,"Itwasnotmeanttobe,andwasneverintendedtobeacharterforconcertedhemisphericaction".[17] Atthesametime,somepeoplequestionedtheintentionsbehindtheMonroeDoctrine.DiegoPortales,aChileanbusinessmanandminister,wrotetoafriend:"Butwehavetobeverycareful:fortheAmericansofthenorth[fromtheUnitedStates],theonlyAmericansarethemselves".[18] Post-Bolívarevents SpainfailstoreconquerMexicoattheBattleofTampicoin1829 InSpanishAmerica,Royalistguerrillascontinuedthewarinseveralcountries,andSpainattemptedtoretakeMexicoin1829.OnlyCubaandPuertoRicoremainedunderSpanishrule,untiltheSpanish–AmericanWarin1898. Inearly1833,theBritishreassertedtheirsovereigntyovertheFalklandislands.NoactionwastakenbytheUS,andGeorgeC.Herringwritesthattheinaction"confirmedLatinAmericanandespeciallyArgentinesuspicionsoftheUnitedStates."[11]: 171 [19]In1838–50ArgentinawasunderconstantnavalblockadebytheFrenchnavy,whichwassupportedbytheBritishnavy,andassuch,noactionwasundertakenbytheU.S.tosupporttheirfellowAmericasnationasMonroehadstatedshouldbedoneforcollectivesecurityagainstEuropeancolonialpowers.[20] In1842,U.S.PresidentJohnTylerappliedtheMonroeDoctrinetoHawaiiandwarnedBritainnottointerferethere.ThisbegantheprocessofannexingHawaiitotheU.S.[21] OnDecember2,1845,U.S.PresidentJamesPolkannouncedthattheprincipleoftheMonroeDoctrineshouldbestrictlyenforced,reinterpretingittoarguethatnoEuropeannationshouldinterferewiththeAmericanwesternexpansion("ManifestDestiny").[22] FrenchinterventioninMexico,1861–1867 In1861,DominicanmilitarycommanderandroyalistpoliticianPedroSantanasignedapactwiththeSpanishCrownandrevertedtheDominicannationtocolonialstatus.Spainwaswaryatfirst,butwiththeU.S.occupiedwithitsowncivilwar,SpainbelievedithadanopportunitytoreassertcontrolinLatinAmerica.OnMarch18,1861,theSpanishannexationoftheDominicanRepublicwasannounced.TheAmericanCivilWarendedin1865,andfollowingthere-assertionoftheMonroeDoctrinebytheUnitedStatesgovernment,thispromptedtheSpanishforcesstationedwithintheDominicanRepublictheextraditebacktoCubawithinthatsameyear.[23] In1862,FrenchforcesunderNapoleonIIIinvadedandconqueredMexico,givingcontroltothepuppetmonarchEmperorMaximilian.WashingtondenouncedthisasaviolationofthedoctrinebutwasunabletointervenebecauseoftheAmericanCivilWar.ThismarkedthefirsttimetheMonroeDoctrinewaswidelyreferredtoasa"doctrine."[citationneeded]In1865theU.S.garrisonedanarmyonitsbordertoencourageNapoleonIIItoleaveMexicanterritory,andtheydidsubsequentlyremovetheirforces,whichwasfollowedbyMexicannationalistscapturingandthenexecutingMaximilian.[24] In1862,theremainingBritishcolonieswithinBelizemergedintoasinglecrowncolonywithintheBritishEmpire,andrenamedasBritishHonduras.TheU.S.governmentdidnotexpressdisapprovalforthisaction,eitherduringoraftertheCivilWar.[25] PresidentClevelandtwistingthetailoftheBritishLion;cartooninPuckbyJ.S.Pughe,1895 Inthe1870s,PresidentUlyssesS.GrantandhisSecretaryofStateHamiltonFishendeavoredtosupplantEuropeaninfluenceinLatinAmericawiththatoftheU.S.In1870,theMonroeDoctrinewasexpandedundertheproclamation"hereafternoterritoryonthiscontinent[referringtoCentralandSouthAmerica]shallberegardedassubjecttotransfertoaEuropeanpower."[11]: 259 GrantinvokedtheMonroeDoctrineinhisfailedattempttoannextheDominicanRepublicin1870.[26] TheVenezuelancrisisof1895became"oneofthemostmomentousepisodesinthehistoryofAnglo-AmericanrelationsingeneralandofAnglo-AmericanrivalriesinLatinAmericainparticular."[27]VenezuelasoughttoinvolvetheU.S.inaterritorialdisputewithBritainoverGuayanaEsequiba,andhiredformerUSambassadorWilliamL.ScruggstoarguethatBritishbehaviourovertheissueviolatedtheMonroeDoctrine.PresidentGroverClevelandthroughhisSecretaryofState,RichardOlney,citedtheDoctrinein1895,threateningstrongactionagainstGreatBritainiftheBritishfailedtoarbitratetheirdisputewithVenezuela.InaJuly20,1895notetoBritain,Olneystated,"TheUnitedStatesispracticallysovereignonthiscontinent,anditsfiatislawuponthesubjectstowhichitconfinesitsinterposition."[11]: 307 BritishPrimeMinisterLordSalisburytookstrongexceptiontotheAmericanlanguage.TheU.S.objectedtoaBritishproposalforajointmeetingtoclarifythescopeoftheMonroeDoctrine.HistorianGeorgeHerringwrotethatbyfailingtopursuetheissuefurthertheBritish"tacitlyconcededtheU.S.definitionoftheMonroeDoctrineanditshegemonyinthehemisphere."[11]: 307–8 OttovonBismarck,didnotagreeandinOctober1897calledtheDoctrinean"uncommoninsolence".[28]SittinginParis,theTribunalofArbitrationfinalizeditsdecisiononOctober3,1899.[27]Theawardwasunanimous,butgavenoreasonsforthedecision,merelydescribingtheresultingboundary,whichgaveBritainalmost90%ofthedisputedterritory[29]andallofthegoldmines.[30] Thereactiontotheawardwassurprise,withtheaward'slackofreasoningaparticularconcern.[29]TheVenezuelanswerekeenlydisappointedwiththeoutcome,thoughtheyhonoredtheircounselfortheirefforts(theirdelegation'ssecretary,SeveroMallet-Prevost [es],receivedtheOrderoftheLiberatorin1944),andabidedbytheaward.[29] TheAnglo-Venezuelanboundarydisputeassertedforthefirsttimeamoreoutward-lookingAmericanforeignpolicy,particularlyintheAmericas,markingtheU.S.asaworldpower.ThiswastheearliestexampleofmoderninterventionismundertheMonroeDoctrineinwhichtheUSAexerciseditsclaimedprerogativesintheAmericas.[31] Spanish–AmericanWar,theresultofU.S.interventionintheCubanWarofIndependence In1898,theU.S.intervenedinsupportofCubaduringitswarforindependencefromSpain.TheresultingSpanish–AmericanWarendedinapeacetreatyrequiringSpaintocedePuertoRico,thePhilippines,andGuamtotheU.S.inexchangefor$20million.SpainwasadditionallyforcedtorecognizeCubanindependence,thoughtheislandremainedunderU.S.occupationuntil1902.[32] "BigBrother" AmericanposeswithdeadHaitianrevolutionarieskilledbyUSMarinemachinegunfire,1915. The"BigBrother"policywasanextensionoftheMonroeDoctrineformulatedbyJamesG.Blaineinthe1880sthataimedtorallyLatinAmericannationsbehindUSleadershipandopentheirmarketstoUStraders.BlaineservedasSecretaryofStatein1881underPresidentJamesA.Garfieldandagainfrom1889to1892underPresidentBenjaminHarrison.Asapartofthepolicy,BlainearrangedandledtheFirstInternationalConferenceofAmericanStatesin1889.[33] "OlneyCorollary" Mainarticle:Olneyinterpretation TheOlneyCorollary,alsoknownastheOlneyinterpretationorOlneydeclarationwasUnitedStatesSecretaryofStateRichardOlney'sinterpretationoftheMonroeDoctrinewhentheborderdisputeforGuayanaEsequibaoccurredbetweentheBritishandVenezuelangovernmentsin1895.OlneyclaimedthattheMonroeDoctrinegavetheU.S.authoritytomediateborderdisputesintheWesternHemisphere.OlneyextendedthemeaningoftheMonroeDoctrine,whichhadpreviouslystatedmerelythattheWesternHemispherewasclosedtoadditionalEuropeancolonization.ThestatementreinforcedtheoriginalpurposeoftheMonroeDoctrine,thattheU.S.hadtherighttointerveneinitsownhemisphereandforeshadowedtheeventsoftheSpanish–AmericanWarthreeyearslater.TheOlneyinterpretationwasdefunctby1933.[34] Canada In1902,CanadianPrimeMinisterWilfridLaurieracknowledgedthattheMonroeDoctrinewasessentialtohiscountry'sprotection.ThedoctrineprovidedCanadawithadefactosecurityguaranteebytheUnitedStates;theUSNavyinthePacific,andtheBritishNavyintheAtlantic,madeinvadingNorthAmericaalmostimpossible.Becauseofthepeacefulrelationsbetweenthetwocountries,CanadacouldassistBritaininaEuropeanwarwithouthavingtodefenditselfathome.[35] "RooseveltCorollary" Mainarticle:RooseveltCorollary 1903cartoon:"GoAway,LittleMan,andDon'tBotherMe".PresidentRooseveltintimidatingColombiatoacquirethePanamaCanalZone.TheDoctrine'sauthors,chieflyfuture-PresidentandthenSecretary-of-StateJohnQuincyAdams,sawitasaproclamationbytheU.S.ofmoraloppositiontocolonialism,butithassubsequentlybeenre-interpretedandappliedinavarietyofinstances.AstheU.S.begantoemergeasaworldpower,theMonroeDoctrinecametodefinearecognizedsphereofcontrolthatfewdaredtochallenge.[4] Beforebecomingpresident,TheodoreRoosevelthadproclaimedtherationaleoftheMonroeDoctrineinsupportinginterventionintheSpanishcolonyofCubain1898.[citationneeded]TheVenezuelaCrisisof1902–1903showedtheworldthattheU.S.waswillingtouseitsnavalstrengthtointervenetostabilizetheeconomicaffairsofsmallstatesintheCaribbeanandCentralAmericaiftheywereunabletopaytheirinternationaldebts,inordertoprecludeEuropeaninterventiontodoso.[36]TheVenezuelacrisis,andinparticularthearbitralaward,werekeyinthedevelopmentoftheCorollary.[36] InArgentineforeignpolicy,theDragoDoctrinewasannouncedonDecember29,1902,bytheforeignministerofArgentina,LuisMaríaDrago.ThedoctrineitselfwasaresponsetotheactionsofBritain,Germany,andItaly,which,in1902,hadblockadedVenezuelainresponsetoVenezuelangovernment'srefusaltopayitsmassiveforeigndebtthathadbeenacquiredunderpreviousadministrationsbeforePresidentCiprianoCastrotookpower.DragosetforththepolicythatnoEuropeanpowercoulduseforceagainstanAmericannationtocollectdebtowed.PresidentTheodoreRooseveltrejectedthispolicyasanextensionoftheMonroeDoctrine,declaring,"Wedonotguaranteeanystateagainstpunishmentifitmisconductsitself".[11]: 370  Instead,RooseveltaddedtheRooseveltCorollarytotheMonroeDoctrinein1904,assertingtherightoftheU.S.tointerveneinLatinAmericaincasesof"flagrantandchronicwrongdoingbyaLatinAmericanNation"topreemptinterventionbyEuropeancreditors.Thisre-interpretationoftheMonroeDoctrinewentontobeausefultooltotakeeconomicbenefitsbyforcewhenLatinnationsfailedtopaytheirdebtstoEuropeanandUSbanksandbusinessinterests.ThiswasalsoreferredtoastheBigStickideologybecauseoftheoft-quotedphrasefromPresidentRoosevelt,"speaksoftlyandcarryabigstick".[4][11]: 371 [37]TheRooseveltcorollaryprovokedoutrageacrossLatinAmerica.[38] TheRooseveltCorollarywasinvokedtointervenemilitarilyinLatinAmericatostopthespreadofEuropeaninfluence.[37]Itwasthemostsignificantamendmenttotheoriginaldoctrineandwaswidelyopposedbycritics,whoarguedthattheMonroeDoctrinewasoriginallymeanttostopEuropeaninfluenceintheAmericas.[4]TheyarguedthattheCorollarysimplyassertedU.S.dominationinthatarea,effectivelymakingthema"hemisphericpoliceman."[39] LodgeResolution Theso-called"LodgeResolution"waspassed[40]bytheU.S.SenateonAugust2,1912,inresponsetoareportedattemptbyaJapan-backedprivatecompanytoacquireMagdalenaBayinsouthernBajaCalifornia.ItextendedthereachoftheMonroeDoctrinetocoveractionsofcorporationsandassociationscontrolledbyforeignstates.[41] GlobalMonroeDoctrine ScholarssuchasNeilSmithhavewrittenthatWoodrowWilsoneffectivelyproposeda"GlobalMonroeDoctrine"expandingUSsupremacyovertheentireworld.[citationneeded]Someanalysts[who?]assertthatthisprerogativeforindirectcontrolandsporadicinvasionsandoccupationsacrosstheplanethaslargelycometofruitionwiththeAmericansuperpowerrolesinceWorldWarII.Suchaexpansionofthedoctrineispremisedonthe"nominalequality"ofindependentstates.Suchsuperficialequalityisoftenunderminedbymaterialinequality,makingtheUSadefactoglobalempire.[42]SmitharguedthatthefoundingoftheUnitedNationsplayedaroleintheestablishingthisglobalprotectoratesituation.[43] ClarkMemorandum TheClarkMemorandum,writtenonDecember17,1928,byCalvinCoolidge'sundersecretaryofstateJ.ReubenClark,concernedU.S.useofmilitaryforcetointerveneinLatinAmericannations.Thismemorandumwasofficiallyreleasedin1930bytheHerbertHooveradministration. TheClarkmemorandumrejectedtheviewthattheRooseveltCorollarywasbasedontheMonroeDoctrine.However,itwasnotacompleterepudiationoftheRooseveltCorollarybutwasratherastatementthatanyinterventionbytheU.S.wasnotsanctionedbytheMonroeDoctrinebutratherwastherightoftheU.S.asastate.ThisseparatedtheRooseveltCorollaryfromtheMonroeDoctrinebynotingthattheMonroeDoctrineonlyappliedtosituationsinvolvingEuropeancountries.OnemainpointintheClarkMemorandumwastonotethattheMonroeDoctrinewasbasedonconflictsofinterestonlybetweentheUnitedStatesandEuropeannations,ratherthanbetweentheUnitedStatesandLatinAmericannations. WorldWarII AfterWorldWarIIbegan,amajorityofAmericanssupporteddefendingtheentireWesternHemisphereagainstforeigninvasion.A1940nationalsurveyfoundthat81%supporteddefendingCanada;75%MexicoandCentralAmerica;69%SouthAmerica;66%WestIndies;and59%Greenland.[44] TheDecember1941conquestofSaintPierreandMiquelonbytheforcesofFreeFrancefromoutofthecontrolofVichyFrancewasseenasaviolationoftheMonroeDoctrinebySecretaryofStateCordellHull.[45] LatinAmericanreinterpretation After1898,juristsandintellectualsinArgentina,Brazil,Chile,andUruguay,especiallyLuisMaríaDrago,AlejandroÁlvarezandBaltasarBrum,reinterpretedtheMonroedoctrine.Theysoughtafreshcontinentalapproachtointernationallawintermsofmultilateralismandnon-intervention.Indeed,analternativeSpanishAmericanoriginoftheideawasproposed,attributingittoManuelTorres.[46]However,AmericanleaderswerereluctanttorenounceunilateralinterventionismuntiltheGoodNeighborpolicyenunciatedbyPresidentFranklinRooseveltin1933.TheeraoftheGoodNeighborPolicyendedwiththeramp-upoftheColdWarin1945,astheUnitedStatesfelttherewasagreaterneedtoprotectthewesternhemispherefromSovietinfluence.ThesechangesconflictedwiththeGoodNeighborPolicy'sfundamentalprincipleofnon-interventionandledtoanewwaveofUSinvolvementinLatinAmericanaffairs.ControloftheMonroedoctrinethusshiftedtothemultilateralOrganizationofAmericanStates(OAS)foundedin1948.[6] In1954,SecretaryofStateJohnFosterDullesinvokedtheMonroeDoctrineatthe10thPan-AmericanConferenceinCaracas,Venezuela,denouncingtheinterventionofSovietCommunisminGuatemala.PresidentJohnF.KennedysaidatanAugust29,1962newsconference: TheMonroeDoctrinemeanswhatithasmeantsincePresidentMonroeandJohnQuincyAdamsenunciatedit,andthatisthatwewouldopposeaforeignpowerextendingitspowertotheWesternHemisphere[sic],andthatiswhyweopposewhatishappeninginCubatoday.Thatiswhywehavecutoffourtrade.ThatiswhyweworkedintheOASandinotherwaystoisolatetheCommunistmenaceinCuba.Thatiswhywewillcontinuetogiveagooddealofoureffortandattentiontoit.[47] ColdWar TheU.S.-supportedNicaraguancontras DuringtheColdWar,theMonroeDoctrinewasappliedtoLatinAmericabytheframersofU.S.foreignpolicy.[48]WhentheCubanRevolution(1953–1959)establishedaCommunistgovernmentwithtiestotheSovietUnion,itwasarguedthattheMonroeDoctrineshouldbeinvokedtopreventthespreadofSoviet-backedCommunisminLatinAmerica.[49]Underthisrationale,theU.S.providedintelligenceandmilitaryaidtoLatinandSouthAmericangovernmentsthatclaimedorappearedtobethreatenedbyCommunistsubversion(asinthecaseofOperationCondor). IntheCubanMissileCrisisof1962,PresidentJohnF.KennedycitedtheMonroeDoctrineasgroundsfortheUnitedStates'confrontationwiththeSovietUnionovertheinstallationofSovietballisticmissilesonCubansoil.[50] ThedebateoverthisnewinterpretationoftheMonroeDoctrineburgeonedinreactiontotheIran–Contraaffair.ItwasrevealedthattheU.S.CentralIntelligenceAgencyhadbeencovertlytraining"Contra"guerrillasoldiersinHondurasinanattempttodestabilizeandoverthrowtheSandinistarevolutionarygovernmentofNicaraguaanditspresident,DanielOrtega.CIAdirectorRobertGatesvigorouslydefendedtheContraoperationin1984,arguingthateschewingU.S.interventioninNicaraguawouldbe"totallytoabandontheMonroeDoctrine".[51] 21st-centuryapproaches KerryDoctrine Furtherinformation:ForeignpolicyoftheBarackObamaadministration§ Americas PresidentBarackObama'sSecretaryofStateJohnKerrytoldtheOrganizationofAmericanStatesinNovember2013thatthe"eraoftheMonroeDoctrineisover."[52]SeveralcommentatorshavenotedthatKerry'scallforamutualpartnershipwiththeothercountriesintheAmericasismoreinkeepingwithMonroe'sintentionsthanthepoliciesenactedafterhisdeath.[53] AmericaFirst PresidentDonaldTrumpimpliedpotentialuseofthedoctrineinAugust2017whenhementionedthepossibilityofmilitaryinterventioninVenezuela,[54]afterhisCIADirectorMikePompeodeclaredthatthenation'sdeteriorationwastheresultofinterferencefromIranian-andRussian-backedgroups.[55]InFebruary2018,SecretaryofStateRexTillersonpraisedtheMonroeDoctrineas"clearly…asuccess",warningof"imperial"ChinesetradeambitionsandtoutingtheUnitedStatesastheregion'spreferredtradepartner.[56]PompeoreplacedTillersonasSecretaryofStateinMay2018.TrumpreiteratedhiscommitmenttotheimplementationoftheMonroeDoctrineatthe73rdUNGeneralAssemblyin2018.[57]VasilyNebenzyacriticisedtheUSforwhattheRussianFederationperceivesasanimplementationoftheMonroeDoctrineatthe8452ndemergencymeetingoftheUnitedNationsSecurityCouncilonJanuary26,2019.Venezuela'srepresentativelisted27interventionsinLatinAmericathatVenezuelaconsiderstobeimplementationsoftheMonroeDoctrine: 20–21 andstatedthat,inthecontextofthestatements,theyconsiderit"adirectmilitarythreattotheBolivarianRepublicofVenezuela".: 47 Cuba'srepresentativeformulatedasimilaropinion,"ThecurrentAdministrationoftheUnitedStatesofAmericahasdeclaredtheMonroeDoctrinetobeineffect...": 28 [58] OnMarch3,2019,NationalSecurityAdvisorJohnBoltoninvokedtheMonroeDoctrineindescribingtheTrumpadministration'spolicyintheAmericas,saying"Inthisadministration,we'renotafraidtousethewordMonroeDoctrine...It'sbeentheobjectiveofAmericanpresidentsgoingbacktoPresidentRonaldReagantohaveacompletelydemocratichemisphere."[59][60] Criticism HistorianshaveobservedthatwhiletheDoctrinecontainedacommitmenttoresistfurtherEuropeancolonialismintheAmericas,itresultedinsomeaggressiveimplicationsforAmericanforeignpolicy,sincetherewerenolimitationsontheUS'sownactionsmentionedwithinit.HistorianJaySextonnotesthatthetacticsusedtoimplementthedoctrineweremodeledafterthoseemployedbyEuropeanimperialpowersduringthe17thand18thcenturies.[61]AmericanhistorianWilliamApplemanWilliams,seeingthedoctrineasaformofAmericanimperialism,describeditasaformof"imperialanti-colonialism".[62]NoamChomskyarguesthatinpracticetheMonroeDoctrinehasbeenusedbytheU.S.governmentasadeclarationofhegemonyandarightofunilateralinterventionovertheAmericas.[63] Seealso BananaWars ForeignpolicyoftheUnitedStates Gunboatdiplomacy LatinAmerica–UnitedStatesrelations MonroeDoctrineCentennialhalfdollar References ^MarkT.Gilderhus,"TheMonroedoctrine:meaningsandimplications."PresidentialStudiesQuarterly36.1(2006):5–16online. ^abEditors,Historycom."MonroeDoctrine".HISTORY.RetrievedDecember2,2021.CS1maint:extratext:authorslist(link) ^"MonroeDoctrine".OxfordEnglishDictionary(3rd ed.).2002. ^abcdeNewEncyclopædiaBritannica.8(15th ed.).EncyclopædiaBritannica.p. 269.ISBN 1-59339-292-3. ^ab"TheMonroeDoctrine(1823)".BasicReadingsinU.S.Democracy.UnitedStatesDepartmentofState.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonJanuary8,2012. ^abScarfi,JuanPablo(2014)."IntheNameoftheAmericas:ThePan-AmericanRedefinitionoftheMonroeDoctrineandtheEmergingLanguageofAmericanInternationalLawintheWesternHemisphere,1898–1933".DiplomaticHistory.40(2):189–218.doi:10.1093/dh/dhu071. ^abcMorison,S.E.(February1924)."TheOriginsoftheMonroeDoctrine".Economica(10):27–51.doi:10.2307/2547870.JSTOR 2547870. ^ab"MonroeDoctrine,1823".OfficeoftheHistorian.UnitedStatesDepartmentofState.April6,2016.RetrievedMarch26,2016. ^Nerval,Gaston(1934).AutopsyoftheMonroeDoctrine.NewYork:TheMacmillanCompany.p. 33. ^Boyer,PaulS.,ed.(2006).TheOxfordCompaniontoUnitedStatesHistory.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.pp. 514.ISBN 978-0-19-508209-8. ^abcdefghHerring,GeorgeC.(2008).FromColonytoSuperpower:U.S.ForeignRelationsSince1776.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 9780195078220. ^ForthetextoftheUkaseof1821,see:"ImperialRussianEdictsRelatingtotheRussian–AmericanCompany".Fur-SealArbitration:AppendixtotheCaseoftheUnitedStatesBeforetheTribunalofArbitrationtoConveneatParisUndertheProvisionsoftheTreatyBetweentheUnitedStatesofAmericaandGreatBritain,ConcludedFebruary29,1892.Washington,DC:U.S.GovernmentPrintingOffice.1892.p. 16. ^Kennedy,DavidM.;Cohen,Lizabeth;Bailey,ThomasAndrew(2008).TheAmericanPageant:AHistoryoftheRepublic,VolumeI.CengageLearning.p. 267.ISBN 9780547166599. ^Miller,RobertJ.;Furse,Elizabeth(2006).NativeAmerica,DiscoveredandConquered:ThomasJefferson,Lewis&Clark,andManifestDestiny.Westport,CT:Praeger.p. 136.ISBN 9780275990114. ^Monroe,James."TheMonroeDoctrine".U.S.DepartmentofState.RetrievedNovember2,2011. ^Hobson,Rolf(2002).ImperialismatSea.163.BrillAcademicPublishers.p. 63.ISBN 978-0-391-04105-9.RetrievedOctober12,2009. ^abcCrow,JohnA.(1992)."AreilandCaliban".TheEpicofLatinAmerica(4th ed.).Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.pp. 676.ISBN 0-520-07723-7. ^Uribe,Armando,ElLibroNegrodelaIntervenciónNorteamericanaenChile.México:SigloXXIEditores,1974. ^Howe,Daniel(2007).WhatHathGodWrought.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.p. 115.ISBN 978-0-19-507894-7. ^"WhatistheMonroeDoctrine?".TheEconomist.ISSN 0013-0613.RetrievedJuly14,2020. ^DebraJ.Allen(2012).HistoricalDictionaryofU.S.DiplomacyfromtheRevolutiontoSecession.ScarecrowPress.p. 270.ISBN 9780810878952. ^noby-line."JamesK.Polk:ReaffirmationoftheMonroeDoctrine".EncyclopædiaBritannica.RetrievedJuly28,2016.InhismessagetoCongressofDecember2,1845,PresidentPolkreinterpretedtheMonroeDoctrineintermsoftheprevailingspiritofManifestDestiny.WhereasMonroehadsaidonlythattheWesternHemispherewasnolongeropentoEuropeancolonialism,PolknowstatedthatEuropeannationshadbetternotinterferewithprojectedterritorialexpansionbytheU.S. ^"AnnexationbySpain,1861–65".U.S.LibraryofCongress. ^M.M.McAllen,MaximilianandCarlota:Europe'sLastEmpireinMexico(2014) ^Byrne,JamesPatrick;Coleman,Philip;King,JasonFrancis(2008).IrelandandtheAmericas.ISBN 9781851096145. ^UlyssesSimpsonGrant;JohnY.Simon,Editor(1998).ThePapersofUlyssesS.Grant:November1,1870–May31,1871.SIUPress.p. 286.ISBN 9780809321971. ^abHumphreys,R.A.(1967).Anglo-AmericanRivalriesandtheVenezuelaCrisisof1895:PresidentialAddresstotheRoyalHistoricalSocietyDecember10,1966.TransactionsoftheRoyalHistoricalSociety.17.pp. 131–164. ^"BismarckandtheMonroeDoctrine".ChicagoTribune.October20,1897.RetrievedAugust16,2016. ^abcSchoenrich(1949:526) ^King(2007:260) ^Ferrell,RobertH."MonroeDoctrine".ap.grolier.com.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonMarch21,2008.RetrievedOctober31,2008. ^Smith,Joseph(2014).TheSpanish–AmericanWar1895–1902:ConflictintheCaribbeanandthePacific.Routledge.ISBN 978-1-138-83742-3. ^Lens,Sidney;Zinn,Howard(2003).TheForgingoftheAmericanEmpire:FromtheRevolutiontoVietnam,aHistoryofU.S.Imperialism.HumanSecuritySeries(Illustrated ed.).PlutoPress.p. 464.ISBN 0-7453-2100-3. ^Young,GeorgeB.(1942)."InterventionUndertheMonroeDoctrine:TheOlneyCorollary".PoliticalScienceQuarterly.57(2):247–280.doi:10.2307/2143553.JSTOR 2143553. ^Dziuban,StanleyW.(1959)."Chapter1,ChautauquatoOgdensburg".MilitaryRelationsBetweentheUnitedStatesandCanada,1939–1945.WashingtonDC:CenterofMilitaryHistory,UnitedStatesArmy.pp. 2–3.LCCN 59-60001. ^abMatthiasMaass(2009),"CatalystfortheRooseveltCorollary:Arbitratingthe1902–1903VenezuelaCrisisandItsImpactontheDevelopmentoftheRooseveltCorollarytotheMonroeDoctrine",Diplomacy&Statecraft,Volume20,Issue3,pages383–402 ^abRoosevelt,Theodore(December6,1904)."StateoftheUnionAddress".TeachingAmericanHistory.org.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonJune13,2010.RetrievedDecember20,2008. ^ThomasLeonard;et al.(2012).EncyclopediaofU.S.–LatinAmericanRelations.SAGE.p. 789.ISBN 9781608717927. ^Lerner,AdrienneWilmoth(2004)."MonroeDoctrine".EncyclopediaofEspionage,Intelligence,andSecurity. ^"SenateVote#236in1912". ^NewYorkTimesCurrentHistory:theEuropeanwar,Volume9.1917.pp. 158–159. ^McGranahan,Carole;Collins,JohnF.(August2,2018)."Chapter18".EthnographiesofU.S.Empire.DukeUniversityPress.ISBN 9781478002086. ^Smith,Neil(March19,2003).AmericanEmpire:Roosevelt'sGeographerandthePreludetoGlobalization.UniversityofCaliforniaPress.pp. 406–419.ISBN 9780520230279.globalmonroedoctrine. ^"WhattheU.S.A.Thinks".Life.July29,1940.p. 20.RetrievedNovember10,2011. ^"OverbyChristmas."TheLiberationofSaintPierreandMiquelon ^Chandler,CharlesLyon(July1914)."ThePanAmericanOriginoftheMonroeDoctrine".AmericanJournalofInternationalLaw.8(3):515–519.doi:10.2307/2187493;GarcíaSamudio,Nicolás(1941)."LamisíondedonManuelTorresenWashingtonylosorígenessuramericanosdeladoctrinaMonroe".BoletíndeHistoriayAntigüedades(inSpanish).28:474–484;criticizedbyWhitaker,ArthurP.(1954).TheWesternHemisphereIdea:ItsRiseandDecline.Ithaca,NewYork:CornellUniversityPress.p. 27. ^"352–ThePresident'sNewsConferenceAugust29,1962responsetoQ[21.]".GerhardPetersandJohnT.Woolley,TheAmericanPresidencyProject. ^Dominguez,Jorge(1999)."US–LatinAmericanRelationsDuringtheColdWaranditsAftermath"(PDF).TheUnitedStatesandLatinAmerica:TheNewAgenda.InstituteofLatinAmericanStudiesandtheDavidRockefellerCenterforLatinAmericasStudies.p. 12.RetrievedAugust4,2010. ^"StudyPreparedinResponsetoNationalSecurityStudyMemorandum15".NSC–IG/ARA.July5,1969.RetrievedAugust4,2010. ^"TheDurableDoctrine".Time.September21,1962.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonMarch6,2009.RetrievedJuly15,2009. ^Smith,Gaddis(1995).TheLastYearsoftheMonroeDoctrine,1945–1993.NewYork:Hill&Wang.p. 201.ISBN 978-0-8090-1568-9. ^Johnson,Keith(November18,2013)."KerryMakesItOfficial:'EraofMonroeDoctrineIsOver'".WallStreetJournal. ^Keck,Zachary(November21,2013)."TheUSRenouncestheMonroeDoctrine?".TheDiplomat.RetrievedNovember28,2013. ^"TrumpSaysHeIsConsideringMilitaryActioninVenezuela".VOANews. ^"CIADirectorPompeo:Venezuela'sSituationContinuestoDeteriorate".VOANews. ^Gramer,Robbie."TillersonPraisesMonroeDoctrine,WarnsLatinAmericaof'Imperial'ChineseAmbitions".ForeignPolicy.TheSlateGroup. ^"RemarksbyPresidentTrumptothe73rdSessionoftheUnitedNationsGeneralAssembly,NewYork,NY".whitehouse.gov.September25,2018–viaNationalArchives. ^"S/PV.8452SecurityCouncil:Seventy-fourthyear:8452ndmeeting".UnitedNations.January26,2019.p. 12. ^"JohnBolton:'We'renotafraidtousethewordMonroeDoctrine'".March3,2019.RetrievedMarch4,2019. ^"WhatistheMonroeDoctrine?JohnBolton'sjustificationforTrump'spushagainstMaduro".TheWashingtonPost.March4,2019. ^Preston,Andrew;Rossinow,Doug(November15,2016).OutsideIn:TheTransnationalCircuitryofUSHistory.OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 9780190459871. ^Sexton,Jay(March15,2011).TheMonroeDoctrine:EmpireandNationinNineteenth-CenturyAmerica.Farrar,StrausandGiroux.pp. 2–9.ISBN 9781429929288. ^Chomsky,Noam(2004).HegemonyOrSurvival.HenryHolt.pp. 63–64.ISBN 978-0-8050-7688-2.RetrievedDecember20,2008. Furtherreading "PresentStatusoftheMonroeDoctrine".AnnalsoftheAmericanAcademyofPoliticalandSocialScience.54:1–129.1914.ISSN 0002-7162.JSTOR i242639.14articlesbyexperts Bemis,SamuelFlagg.JohnQuincyAdamsandtheFoundationsofAmericanForeignPolicy(1949)online Gilderhus,MarkT.(2006)"TheMonroeDoctrine:meaningsandimplications."PresidentialStudiesQuarterly36.1(2006):5–16.Online Lawson,LeonardAxel(1922).TheRelationofBritishPolicytotheDeclarationoftheMonroeDoctrine.ColumbiaUniversity.ISBN 9780231940924. May,ErnestR.(1975).TheMakingoftheMonroeDoctrine.HarvardUP.ISBN 9780674543409. May,RobertE.(2017)"TheIronyofConfederateDiplomacy:VisionsofEmpire,theMonroeDoctrine,andtheQuestforNationhood."JournalofSouthernHistory83.1(2017):69-106.excerpt Meiertöns,Heiko(2010).TheDoctrinesofUSSecurityPolicy:AnEvaluationunderInternationalLaw.CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-521-76648-7. Merk,Frederick(1966).TheMonroeDoctrineandAmericanExpansionism,1843–1849.NewYork,Knopf. Murphy,Gretchen(2005).HemisphericImaginings:TheMonroeDoctrineandNarrativesofU.S.Empire.DukeUniversityPress.Examinestheculturalcontextofthedoctrine.excerpt Perkins,Dexter(1927).TheMonroeDoctrine,1823–1826.3vols. Poston,Brook.(2016)"'BolderAttitude':JamesMonroe,theFrenchRevolution,andtheMakingoftheMonroeDoctrine"VirginiaMagazineofHistoryandBiography124#4(2016),pp.282–315.online Rossi,ChristopherR.(2019)"TheMonroeDoctrineandtheStandardofCivilization."WhiggishInternationalLaw(BrillNijhoff,2019)pp.123–152. Sexton,Jay(2011).TheMonroeDoctrine:EmpireandNationin19th-CenturyAmerica.Hill&Wang.290pages;competingandevolvingconceptionsofthedoctrineafter1823.excerpt Externallinks Listentothisarticle(22minutes) Thisaudiofilewascreatedfromarevisionofthisarticledated29 August 2019 (2019-08-29),anddoesnotreflectsubsequentedits.(Audiohelp ·Morespokenarticles) MonroeDoctrineatWikipedia'ssisterprojectsDefinitionsfromWiktionaryMediafromCommonsTextsfromWikisourceDatafromWikidata MonroeDoctrineandrelatedresourcesattheLibraryofCongress SelectedtextfromMonroe'sDecember2,1823speech Adios,MonroeDoctrine:WhentheYanquisGoHomebyJorgeG.Castañeda,TheNewRepublic,December28,2009 Asillustratedina1904cartoon vteJamesMonroe 5thPresidentoftheUnitedStates(1817–1825) 5thU.S.SecretaryofState(1811–1817) UnitedStatesSecretaryofWar(1814–1815) GovernorofVirginia(1799–1802,1811) UnitedStatesMinistertotheUnitedKingdom(1803–1808) UnitedStatesMinistertoFrance(1794–1796) UnitedStatesSenatorfromVirginia(1790–1794) 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