No Child Left Behind Act - Wikipedia

The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) was a U.S. Act of Congress that reauthorized the Elementary and Secondary Education Act; it included Title I ... NoChildLeftBehindAct FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch 2002UnitedStateseducationreformlaw;repealed2015 "NoChildLeftBehind"redirectshere.FortheKanyeWestsong,seeNoChildLeftBehind(song).FortheVikingalbum,seeNoChildLeftBehind(album). NoChildLeftBehindActof2001LongtitleAnacttoclosetheachievementgapwithaccountability,flexibility,andchoice,sothatnochildisleftbehind.Acronyms(colloquial)NCLBEnacted bythe107thUnitedStatesCongressCitationsPubliclaw107-110StatutesatLarge30Stat.750,42Stat.108,48Stat.986,52Stat.781,73Stat.4,88Stat.2213,102Stat.130and357,107Stat.1510,108Stat.154and223,112Stat.3076,113Stat.1323,115Stat.1425to2094CodificationActsamendedAdultEducationandFamilyLiteracyActAgeDiscriminationActof1975AlbertEinsteinDistinguishedEducatorFellowshipActof1994AugustusF.Hawkins-RobertT.StaffordElementaryandSecondarySchoolImprovementAmendmentsof1988CarlD.PerkinsVocationalandTechnicalEducationActof1998CivilRightsActof1964CommunicationsActof1934CommunityServicesBlockGrantActDepartmentofEducationOrganizationActDistrictofColumbiaCollegeAccessActof1999EducationAmendmentsof1972EducationAmendmentsof1978EducationFlexibilityPartnershipActof1999EducationforEconomicSecurityActEducationalResearch,Development,Dissemination,andImprovementActof1994ElementaryandSecondaryEducationActof1965FamilyandMedicalLeaveActof1993GeneralEducationProvisionsActGoals2000:EducateAmericaActHazardousandSolidWasteAmendmentsof1986HigherEducationActof1965IndividualswithDisabilitiesEducationActJamesMadisonMemorialFellowshipActInternalRevenueCodeof1986Johnson–O'MalleyActof1934LegislativeBranchAppropriationsAct,1997McKinney-VentoHomelessAssistanceActof1987MuseumandLibraryServicesActNationalAgriculturalResearch,Extension,andTeachingPolicyActof1977NationalandCommunityServiceActof1990NationalChildProtectionActof1993NationalEducationStatisticsActof1994NationalEnvironmentalEducationActof1990NativeAmericanLanguagesActPublicLaw88-210PublicLaw106-400RefugeeEducationAssistanceActof1980RehabilitationActof1973SafeDrinkingWaterActSchool-to-WorkOpportunitiesActof1994StateDependentCareDevelopmentGrantsActTelecommunicationsActof1996TriballyControlledSchoolsActof1987ToxicSubstancesControlActof1976TransportationEquityActforthe21stCenturyWorkforceInvestmentActof1998Titlesamended15U.S.C.:CommerceandTrade20U.S.C.:Education42U.S.C.:PublicHealthandSocialWelfare47U.S.C.:TelegraphyU.S.C.sectionsamended15U.S.C.ch.53,subch.I§§2601–262920U.S.C.ch.28§1001etseq.20U.S.C.ch.7042U.S.C.ch.119§11301etseq.47U.S.C.ch.5,subch.VI§60947U.S.C.ch.5,subch.II§ 251etseq.47U.S.C.ch.5,subch.I§ 151etseq.47U.S.C.ch.5,subch.II§ 271etseq.LegislativehistoryIntroducedintheHouseofRepresentativesas[3]byJohnBoehner(R-OH)onMarch22,2001CommitteeconsiderationbyEducationandtheWorkforceandJudiciaryPassedtheUnitedStatesHouseofRepresentativesonMay23,2001 (384–45)PassedtheUnitedStatesSenateonJune14,2001 (91–8)ReportedbythejointconferencecommitteeonDecember13,2001;agreedtobytheUnitedStatesHouseofRepresentativesonDecember13,2001 (381–41)andbytheUnitedStatesSenateonDecember18,2001 (87–10)SignedintolawbyPresidentGeorgeW.BushonJanuary8,2002MajoramendmentsRepealedonDecember10,2015.ReplacedwithEveryStudentSucceedsAct ThisarticleispartofaseriesaboutGeorgeW.Bush Politicalpositions Electoralhistory Earlylife Professionallife Family Publicimage Honors 46thGovernorofTexas Governorship 43rdPresidentoftheUnitedStates Presidency timeline Transition Inaugurations first second Policies Domestic Economic Foreign BushDoctrine internationaltrips Space Legislationandprograms Pardons Appointments Cabinet Judiciary Miers Roberts Alito Firstterm September11attacks Waronterror WarinAfghanistan PatriotAct NoChildLeftBehindAct InvasionofIraq Iraqandweaponsofmassdestruction Secondterm HurricaneKatrina IraqWar 2007Iraqsurge DismissalofU.S.attorneyscontroversy Emailcontroversy GreatRecession EconomicStimulusAct Presidentialcampaigns 2000 primaries convention debates election Floridarecount Bushv.Gore 2004 primaries convention debates election Post-presidency Presidentiallibrary Bibliography ClintonBushHaitiFund OneAmericaAppeal vte ThisarticleispartofaseriesonEducationintheUnitedStates Summary Bystateandininsularareas Bysubjectarea Historyof Issues Accreditation Primaryandsecondary Post-secondary Financing Law Literacy Policy Post-secondaryissues Bubble Costandfinancing Credentialism Eliteoverproduction Graduateunemployment Reform Charterschools Inequality Schoolchoice Levelsofeducation Earlychildhood–K–12(Primary–Secondary)–Post-secondary Organizations  Educationportal UnitedStatesportalvte PresidentGeorgeW.BushsigningtheNoChildLeftBehindAct. PresidentGeorgeW.BushsignstheNoChildLeftBehindActintolaw TheNoChildLeftBehindActof2001(NCLB)[1][2]wasaU.S.ActofCongressthatreauthorizedtheElementaryandSecondaryEducationAct;itincludedTitleIprovisionsapplyingtodisadvantagedstudents.[3]Itsupportedstandards-basededucationreformbasedonthepremisethatsettinghighstandardsandestablishingmeasurablegoalscouldimproveindividualoutcomesineducation.TheActrequiredstatestodevelopassessmentsinbasicskills.Toreceivefederalschoolfunding,stateshadtogivetheseassessmentstoallstudentsatselectgradelevels. Theactdidnotassertanationalachievementstandard—eachstatedevelopeditsownstandards.[4]NCLBexpandedthefederalroleinpubliceducationthroughfurtheremphasisonannualtesting,annualacademicprogress,reportcards,andteacherqualifications,aswellassignificantchangesinfunding.[3] WhilethebillfacedchallengesfrombothDemocratsandRepublicans,itpassedinbothchambersofthelegislaturewithsignificantbipartisansupport.[5]By2015,bipartisancriticismhadaccumulatedsomuchthatabipartisanCongressstrippedawaythenationalfeaturesofNoChildLeftBehind.Itsreplacement,theEveryStudentSucceedsAct,turnedtheremnantsovertothestates.[6][7] Contents 1Background 2Legislativehistory 3Provisionsoftheact 4Effectsonteachers,schools,andschooldistricts 4.1Increasedaccountability 4.2Schoolchoice 4.3Narrowdefinitionofresearch 4.4Qualityanddistributionofteachers 5Effectsonstudentassessment 6Improvedtestscores 6.1Criticismsofstandardizedtesting 7Intendedeffectsoncurriculumandstandards 7.1Improvementoverlocalstandards 7.2Qualityofeducation 7.3Effectonartsandelectives 8Effectsonschoolandstudents 8.1Giftedstudents 8.2Unrealisticgoals 8.3Gamingthesystem 8.4Variabilityinstudentpotentialand100%compliance 8.5Childrenwithdisabilities 8.6AligningtheIndividualswithDisabilitiesEducationAct 8.7Positiveeffectsforstudentswithdisabilities 8.8Negativeeffectsforstudentswithdisabilities 9Effectsonracialandethnicminoritystudents 9.1Attentiontominoritypopulations 9.2Staterefusaltoproducenon-Englishassessments 9.3DemographicstudyofAYPfailureratesandrequirementforfailingschools 10Funding 10.1Criticismsoffundinglevels 10.2Stateeducationbudgets 11Proposalsforreform 12Waivers 13Replacement 14Seealso 15References 16Furtherreading 17Externallinks Background[edit] PriortotheNoChildLeftBehindActof2001,theElementaryandSecondaryEducationAct(ESEA)wassignedintolawbyPresidentLyndonB.Johnsonin1965.[8]Itsgoalwastoprovideadditionalresourcestolow-incomestudents,butfollowingitsenactment,thenationrepeatedlyfellshortofmeetingthelaw'sgoalofprovidingfulleducationalopportunitiestostudents.[9]FearsconcerningtheAmericaneducationsystemculminatedwiththe1983releaseofareportentitledANationAtRisk,writtenbyPresidentRonaldReagan'sNationalCommissiononExcellenceinEducation.[10]ThisreportsuggestedthatAmerica'seconomicsecuritywouldbeseverelycompromisedunlesstherewereacompletereorientationoftheeducationsystemandanincreaseinthesetofacademicstandardsthatstudentswereexpectedtoachieve.[11]ThoughmanyRepublicangroupshistoricallyopposedtheactiveroleofthefederalgovernmentineducation,lobbyingefforts,publicopinion,andotherpoliticaldevelopmentsinWashington(suchastheRepublicandefeatinthe1996presidentialelection)causedcongressionalRepublicanstopushforfederaleducationalreformsthatemphasizedstandardizedtestingandotheraccountabilitymeasures.[12]Atthetime,increasedattentionwasbeingpaidtothestateofeducationinthenationbecausepriortothe2000UnitedStatespresidentialelection,then-candidateGeorgeBushmadeanumberofcampaignpromisesrelatedtobipartisaneducationreform.[13][14][15] TheincreasedfocusintheUnitedStatesoneducationalstandardsandaccountabilityreflectedinternationaleducationpolicydevelopmentsanddebates.AfterWorldWarII,internationalorganizationssuchastheUnitedNationsEducational,Scientific,andCulturalOrganization(UNESCO),theWorldBank,andtheOrganizationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment(OCED)devotedtheirattentiontoglobaleducationaldevelopment.Fromthe1960sonward,theseorganizationsincreasinglyfocusedonlearningoutcomesandevaluationproceduresthatincludedtheevaluationofeducationsystemsagainstdefinedstandardsofperformance.The2001NCLBActwaspartofthisglobalmovementtowardgreateraccountabilityineducation.[16] Legislativehistory[edit] PresidentGeorgeW.BushfirstproposedtheuseoffederalaidtocreateaplanbywhichtoholdschoolsaccountablefortheeducationaloutcomesoftheirstudentsonJanuary23,2001;however,asitwasinitiallydescribed,theActfacedsignificantcriticismfrominterestgroupssuchastheEducationTrustbecauseofitsinclusionofvouchers.[17][12]Voucherswouldenableparentstochooseadifferentschool(public,private,orotherwise)fortheirchildtoattendiftheirdistrictfailedtomeetstatestandards;however,criticsstatedthatthismovewouldtakefundsawayfromschoolsthatneededthemostfunding.[17][18]TheNCLBActwasintroducedintheUnitedStatesHouseofRepresentativesonMarch22,2001,anditwascoauthoredbyRepresentativesJohnBoehner(R-OH),GeorgeMiller(D-CA),andSenatorsTedKennedy(D-MA)andJuddGregg(R-NH).[19][20]AsitmadeitswaythroughtheHouseofRepresentativesandtheSenate,thebillfacedanumberofchallenges,rangingfromDemocraticappealsformorefunding,toRepublicanpushbackontheincreasedroleoftheFederalgovernmentintherealmofeducation.[21]Despitethis,theActgarneredbipartisansupportinbothchambersofthelegislature,anditwaspassedintheUnitedStatesHouseofRepresentativesonDecember13,2001(voting381–41),[22]andintheUnitedStatesSenateonDecember18,2001(voting87–10).[12][23]TheActwasthensignedintolawbyPresidentBushonJanuary8,2002.[20] Provisionsoftheact[edit] AccordingtotheU.S.DepartmentofEducation,someofthemostimportantthingsthattheNoChildLeftBehindActof2001setsouttoaccomplishareincreasingtheaccountabilityofschoolsfortheeducationaloutcomesoftheirstudentsandbridgingthegapbetweenpoorandhigh-performingstudentsanddistricts.[24]Inordertodothis,NCLBrequiresallpublicschoolsreceivingfederalfundingtoadministeranationwidestandardizedtestannuallytostudentsinselectgrades.[25]Furthermore,inordertoimprovetheeducationaloutcomesofstudents,theactnamesseveralmethodsthatcouldbeutilizedbyschooldistrictstohelptheirstudentsachieveeducationalgrowth,suchasteacherprofessionaldevelopment,educationaltechnology,andparentalinvolvementactivities,amongothers.[26]InordertodeterminehowmuchgrantmoneyschoolsshouldbeallocatedfortheprogramsenactedinthevarioussectionsofNCLB,theactaskseachlocalagencytodeterminetheaveragenumberofstudentsindailyattendanceintheK-12schoolsthattheagenciesserve.[27]Also,thelawcallsfortheimprovementofthedisseminationofinformationonstudentachievementandschoolperformancetoparentsthroughreportingsystemsthatreflectbesteducationalpractices.[28] SchoolsthatreceiveTitleIfundingthroughtheElementaryandSecondaryEducationActof1965mustmakeAdequateYearlyProgress(AYP)intestscores(e.g.eachyear,fifthgradersmustdobetteronstandardizedteststhanthepreviousyear'sfifthgraders).[29] Iftheschool'sresultsarerepeatedlypoor,thenstepsaretakentoimprovetheschool.[30] SchoolsthatmissAYPforasecondconsecutiveyeararepubliclylabeledas"InNeedofImprovement,"andmustdevelopatwo-yearimprovementplanforthesubjectthattheschoolisnotteachingwell.Studentshavetheoptiontotransfertoahigherperformingschoolwithintheschooldistrict,ifanyexists. MissingAYPinthethirdyearforcestheschooltoofferfreetutoringandothersupplementaleducationservicestostudentswhoarestruggling. IfaschoolmissesitsAYPtargetforafourthconsecutiveyear,theschoolislabelledasrequiring"correctiveaction,"whichmightinvolvewholesalereplacementofstaff,introductionofanewcurriculum,orextendingtheamountoftimestudentsspendinclass. Afifthyearoffailureresultsinplanningtorestructuretheentireschool;theplanisimplementediftheschoolunsuccessfullyhitsitsAYPtargetsforthesixthconsecutiveyear.Commonoptionsincludeclosingtheschool,turningtheschoolintoacharterschool,hiringaprivatecompanytoruntheschool,oraskingthestateofficeofeducationtoruntheschooldirectly.[31] StatesmustcreateAYPobjectivesconsistentwiththefollowingrequirementsofthelaw:[32] StatesmustdevelopAYPstatewidemeasurableobjectivesforimprovedachievementbyallstudentsandforspecificgroups:economicallydisadvantagedstudents,studentswithdisabilities,andstudentswithlimitedEnglishproficiency. Theobjectivesmustbesetwiththegoalofhavingallstudentsattheproficientlevelorabovewithin12years(i.e.bytheendofthe2013–14schoolyear). AYPmustbeprimarilybasedonstateassessments,butmustalsoincludeoneadditionalacademicindicator,whichisdefinedbythestates.[31] TheAYPobjectivesmustbeassessedattheschoollevel.SchoolsthatfailedtomeettheirAYPobjectivefortwoconsecutiveyearsareidentifiedforimprovement. SchoolAYPresultsmustbereportedseparatelyforeachgroupofstudentsidentifiedabovesothatitcanbedeterminedwhethereachstudentgroupmettheAYPobjective. Atleast95%ofeachgroupmustparticipateinstateassessments. StatesmayaggregateuptothreeyearsofdatainmakingAYPdeterminations. Theactrequiresstatestoprovide"highlyqualified"teacherstoallstudents.Eachstatesetsitsownstandardsforwhatcountsas"highlyqualified."[33]Similarly,theactrequiresstatestoset"onehigh,challengingstandard"foritsstudents.Eachstatedecidesforitselfwhatcountsas"onehigh,challengingstandard,"butthecurriculumstandardsmustbeappliedtoallstudents,ratherthanhavingdifferentstandardsforstudentsindifferentcitiesorotherpartsofthestate. Theactalsorequiresschoolstoletmilitaryrecruitershavestudents'contactinformationandotheraccesstothestudent,iftheschoolprovidesthatinformationtouniversitiesoremployers,unlessthestudentsoptoutofgivingmilitaryrecruitersaccess.Thisportionofthelawhasdrawnafairamountofcriticismandhasevenledtopoliticalresistance.Forinstance,in2003inSantaCruz,California,student-ledeffortsforcedschooldistrictstocreatean"opt-in"policythatrequiredstudentsaffirmtheywantedthemilitarytohavetheirinformation.ThissuccessfulstudentorganizingeffortwascopiedinvariousothercitiesthroughouttheUnitedStates.[34] Theactoutlinesprogramsandrequirementsthathavetheintendedpurposeofpreventingdrugandalcoholusebystudents,aswellasprogramsthatwoulddeterstudentsfromcommittingactsofviolenceinschools.[35]Theactalsoprovidesfundstostatesinordertoenablestudentswhohavebeenexpelledfromschoolforcertainoffensestoperformactsofcommunityservice. Effectsonteachers,schools,andschooldistricts[edit] Increasedaccountability[edit] SupportersoftheNCLBclaimoneofthestrongpositivepointsofthebillistheincreasedaccountabilitythatisrequiredofschoolsandteachers.Accordingtothelegislation,schoolsmustpassyearlyteststhatjudgestudentimprovementoverthefiscalyear.Theseyearlystandardizedtestsarethemainmeansofdeterminingwhetherschoolsliveuptorequiredstandards.Ifrequiredimprovementsarenotmade,theschoolsfacedecreasedfundingandotherpunishmentsthatcontributetotheincreasedaccountability.Accordingtosupporters,thesegoalshelpteachersandschoolsrealizethesignificanceandimportanceoftheeducationalsystemandhowitaffectsthenation.Opponentsofthislawsaythatthepunishmentsonlyhurttheschoolsanddonotcontributetotheimprovementofstudenteducation. Inadditiontoandinsupportoftheabovepoints,proponentsclaimthatNoChildLeftBehind: Linksstateacademiccontentstandardswithstudentoutcomes Measuresstudentperformance:astudent'sprogressinreadingandmathmustbemeasuredannuallyingrades3through8andatleastonceduringhighschoolviastandardizedtests Providesinformationforparentsbyrequiringstatesandschooldistrictstogiveparentsdetailedreportcardsonschoolsanddistrictsexplainingtheschool'sAYPperformance;schoolsmustinformparentswhentheirchildistaughtbyateacherorpara-professionalwhodoesnotmeet"highlyqualified"requirements Establishesthefoundationforschoolsandschooldistrictstosignificantlyenhanceparentalinvolvementandimprovedadministrationthroughtheuseoftheassessmentdatatodrivedecisionsoninstruction,curriculumandbusinesspractices ThecommonwealthofPennsylvaniahasproposedtyingteacher'ssalariestotestscores.Ifadistrict'sstudentsdopoorly,thestatecutsthedistrict'sbudgetthefollowingyearandtheteachersgetapaycut.Criticspointoutthatifaschooldoespoorly,reducingitsbudgetandcuttingteachersalarieswilllikelyhampertheschool'sabilitytoimprove. Schoolchoice[edit] GivesoptionstostudentsenrolledinschoolsfailingtomeetAYP.IfaschoolfailstomeetAYPtargetstwoormoreyearsrunning,theschoolmustoffereligiblechildrenthechancetotransfertohigher-performinglocalschools,receivefreetutoring,orattendafter-schoolprograms. Givesschooldistrictstheopportunitytodemonstrateproficiency,evenforsubgroupsthatdonotmeetStateMinimumAchievementstandards,throughaprocesscalled"safeharbor,"aprecursortogrowth-basedorvalue-addedassessments. Narrowdefinitionofresearch[edit] Theactrequiresschoolstorelyonscientificallybasedresearchforprogramsandteachingmethods.Theactdefinesthisas"researchthatinvolvestheapplicationofrigorous,systematic,andobjectiveprocedurestoobtainreliableandvalidknowledgerelevanttoeducationactivitiesandprograms."Scientificallybasedresearchresultsin"replicableandapplicablefindings"fromresearchthatusedappropriatemethodstogeneratepersuasive,empiricalconclusions.[36] Qualityanddistributionofteachers[edit] PriortotheNCLBact,newteachersweretypicallyrequiredtohaveabachelor'sdegree,befullycertified,anddemonstratesubjectmatterknowledge—generallythroughtests.[37]UnderNCLB,existingteachers—includingthosewithtenure—werealsosupposedtomeetstandards.Theycouldmeetthesamerequirementssetfornewteachersorcouldmeetastate-determined"...high,objective,uniformstatestandardofevaluation,"akaHOUSSE.[38]DownfallofthequalityrequirementsoftheNCLBlegislationhavereceivedlittleresearchattention,inpartbecausestaterulesrequirefewchangesfrompre-existingpractice.Thereisalsolittleevidencethattheruleshavealteredtrendsinobservableteachertraits.[39]Foryears,Americaneducatorshavebeenstrugglingtoidentifythoseteachertraitsthatareimportantcontributorstostudentachievement.Unfortunately,thereisnoconsensusonwhattraitsaremostimportantandmosteducationpolicyexpertsagreethatfurtherresearchisrequired. Effectsonstudentassessment[edit] SeveraloftheanalysesofstateaccountabilitysystemsthatwereinplacebeforeNCLBindicatethatoutcomesaccountabilityledtofastergrowthinachievementforthestatesthatintroducedsuchsystems.[40]ThedirectanalysisofstatetestscoresbeforeandafterenactmentofNCLBalsosupportsitspositiveimpact.[41]AprimarycriticismassertsthatNCLBreduceseffectiveinstructionandstudentlearningbycausingstatestolowerachievementgoalsandmotivateteachersto"teachtothetest."[42]Aprimarysupportiveclaimassertsthatsystematictestingprovidesdatathatshedlightonwhichschoolsdon'tteachbasicskillseffectively,sothatinterventionscanbemadetoimproveoutcomesforallstudentswhilereducingtheachievementgapfordisadvantagedanddisabledstudents.[43] Improvedtestscores[edit] TheUnitedStatesDepartmentofEducationpointstotheNationalAssessmentofEducationalProgress(NAEP)results,releasedinJuly2005,showingimprovedstudentachievementinreadingandmath:[44] Moreprogresswasmadebynine-year-oldsinreadinginthelastfiveyearsthanintheprevious28yearscombined. America'snine-year-oldsagegroup,postedthebestscoresinreading(since1971)andmath(since1973)inthehistoryofthereport.America's13-year-oldsearnedthehighestmathscoresthetesteverrecorded. ReadingandmathscoresforblackandHispanicnine-year-oldsreachedanall-timehigh. Achievementgapsinreadingandmathbetweenwhiteandblacknine-year-oldsandbetweenwhiteandHispanicnine-year-oldsareatanall-timelow. Forty-threestatesandtheDistrictofColumbiaeitherimprovedacademicallyorheldsteadyinallcategories(fourth-andeighth-gradereadingandfourth-andeighth-grademath). Thesestatisticscompare2005with2000thoughNoChildLeftBehinddidnoteventakeeffectuntil2003.Criticspointoutthattheincreaseinscoresbetween2000and2005wasroughlythesameastheincreasebetween2003and2005,whichcallsintoquestionhowanyincreasecanbeattributedtoNoChildLeftBehind.Theyalsoarguethatsomeofthesubgroupsarecherry-picked—thatinothersubgroupsscoresremainedthesameorfell.[45]Also,themakersofthestandardizedtestshavebeenblamedformakingthetestseasiersothatitiseasierforschoolstosufficientlyimprove. EducationresearchersThomasDeeandBrianJacobarguethatNCLBshowedstatisticallysignificantpositiveimpactonstudents'performanceon4th-grademathexams(equaltotwo-thirdsofayear'sworthofgrowth),smallerandstatisticallyinsignificantimprovementsin8th-grademathexamperformance,andnodiscernibleimprovementinreadingperformance.[46] Criticismsofstandardizedtesting[edit] Criticsarguethatthefocusonstandardizedtesting(allstudentsinastatetakethesametestunderthesameconditions)encouragesteacherstoteachanarrowsubsetofskillsthattheschoolbelievesincreasestestperformance,ratherthanachievein-depthunderstandingoftheoverallcurriculum.[47][48]Forexample,ateacherwhoknowsthatallquestionsonamathtestaresimpleadditionproblems(e.g.,Whatis2 + 3?)mightnotinvestanyclasstimeonthepracticalapplicationsofaddition,toleavemoretimeforthematerialthetestassesses.Thisiscolloquiallyreferredtoas"teachingtothetest.""Teachingtothetest"hasbeenobservedtoraisetestscores,thoughnotasmuchasotherteachingtechniques.[49] Manyteacherswhopractice"teachingtothetest"misinterprettheeducationaloutcomesthetestsaredesignedtomeasure.Ontwostatetests,NewYorkandMichigan,andtheNationalAssessmentofEducationalProgress(NAEP)almosttwo-thirdsofeighthgradersmissedmathwordproblemsthatrequiredanapplicationofthePythagoreantheoremtocalculatethedistancebetweentwopoints.[50]Theteacherscorrectlyanticipatedthecontentofthetests,butincorrectlyassumedeachtestwouldpresentsimplisticitemsratherthanhigher-orderitems. Anotherproblemisthatoutsideinfluencesoftenaffectstudentperformance.[51]Studentswhostruggletotaketestsmayperformwellusinganothermethodoflearningsuchasproject-basedlearning.Sometimes,factorssuchashomelifecanaffecttestperformance.Basingperformanceononetestinaccuratelymeasuresstudentsuccessoverall.NoChildLeftBehindhasfailedtoaccountforallthesefactors.[52] Thoseopposedtotheuseoftestingtodetermineeducationalachievementpreferalternativessuchassubjectiveteacheropinions,classwork,andperformance-basedassessments.[53] UnderNoChildLeftBehind,schoolsandteacherswereheldalmostexclusivelyaccountableforlevelsofstudentperformance.[48]Butthatmeantthatevenschoolsthatweremakinggreatstrideswithstudentswerestilllabeledas"failing"justbecausethestudentshadnotyetmadeitallthewaytoa"proficient"levelofachievement.Since2005,theU.S.DepartmentofEducationhasapproved15statestoimplementgrowthmodelpilots.Eachstateadoptedoneoffourdistinctgrowthmodels:Trajectory,TransitionTables,StudentGrowthPercentiles,andProjection.[54] Theincentivesforimprovementalsomaycausestatestolowertheirofficialstandards.Becauseeachstatecanproduceitsownstandardizedtests,astatecanmakeitsstatewidetestseasiertoincreasescores.[55]Missouri,forexample,improvedtestingscoresbutopenlyadmittedthattheyloweredthestandards.[56]A2007studybytheU.S.Dept.ofEducationindicatesthattheobserveddifferencesinstates'reportedscoresislargelyduetodifferencesinthestringencyoftheirstandards.[57] Intendedeffectsoncurriculumandstandards[edit] Improvementoverlocalstandards[edit] Manyarguethatlocalgovernmenthadfailedstudents,necessitatingfederalinterventiontoremedyissuesliketeachersteachingoutsidetheirareasofexpertise,andcomplacencyinthefaceofcontinuallyfailingschools.[58]Somelocalgovernments,notablythatofNewYorkstate,havesupportedNCLBprovisions,becauselocalstandardsfailedtoprovideadequateoversightoverspecialeducation,andNCLBwouldletthemuselongitudinaldatamoreeffectivelytomonitorAdequateYearlyProgress(AYP).[59]StatesallovertheUnitedStateshaveshownimprovementsintheirprogressasanapparentresultofNCLB.Forexample,WisconsinranksfirstofallfiftystatesplustheDistrictofColumbia,withninety-eightpercentofitsschoolsachievingNoChildLeftBehindstandards.[60] Qualityofeducation[edit] Increasesthequalityofeducationbyrequiringschoolstoimprovetheirperformance Improvesqualityofinstructionbyrequiringschoolstoimplement"scientificallybasedresearch"practicesintheclassroom,parentinvolvementprograms,andprofessionaldevelopmentactivitiesforthosestudentsthatarenotencouragedorexpectedtoattendcollege. SupportsearlyliteracythroughtheEarlyReadingFirstinitiative. Emphasizesreading,languagearts,mathematicsandscienceachievementas"coreacademicsubjects."[61] Studentperformanceinothersubjects(besidesreadingandmath)willbemeasuredasapartofoverallprogress. Effectonartsandelectives[edit] NCLB'smainfocusisonskillsinreading,writing,andmathematics,whichareareasrelatedtoeconomicsuccess.Combinedwiththebudgetcrisesinthelate-2000srecession,someschoolshavecutoreliminatedclassesandresourcesformanysubjectareasthatarenotpartofNCLB'saccountabilitystandards.[62]Since2007,almost71%ofschoolshavereducedinstructiontimeinsubjectssuchashistory,arts,language,andmusictoprovidemoretimeandresourcestomathematicsandEnglish.[63][64] Insomeschools,theclassesremainavailable,butindividualstudentswhoarenotproficientinbasicskillsaresenttoremedialreadingormathematicsclassesratherthanarts,sports,orotheroptionalsubjects. AccordingtoPaulReville,theauthorof"StopNarrowingoftheCurriculumByRight-SizingSchoolTime,"teachersarelearningthatstudentsneedmoretimetoexcelinthe"needed"subjects.Thestudentsneedmoretimetoachievethebasicgoalsthatshouldcomebysomewhatrelevanttoastudent.[65] PhysicalEducation,ontheotherhand,isoneofthesubjectsleastaffected.[66]Somemightfindthisconfusingbecauselikemanyelectivesandnon-coreclasses,NoChildLeftBehinddoesnotaddressPhysicalEducationdirectly.[67]TworeasonswhyPhysicalEducationisnotadverselyaffectedincludetheobesitycrisisintheUnitedStatesthatthefederalgovernmentistryingtoreversethroughprogramslikeFirstLadyMichelleObama'sLet'sMoveCampaign,whichamongotherthings,lookstoimprovethequantityandqualityofphysicaleducation.[68]Secondly,thereisresearch,includinga2005studybyDr.CharlesH.HillmamofTheUniversityofIllinoisatUrbana-Champaignthatconcludesthatfitnessisgloballyrelatedtoacademicachievement.[69] Theopportunities,challenges,andrisksthatNoChildLeftBehindposesforscienceeducationinelementaryandmiddleschools—worldwidecompetitioninsistsonrapidlyimprovingscienceeducation.AddingscienceassessmentstotheNCLBrequirementsmayultimatelyresultinsciencebeingtaughtinmoreelementaryschoolsandbymoreteachersthaneverbefore.2/3ofelementaryschoolteachersindicatedthattheywerenotfamiliarwithnationalsciencestandards.Mostconcerncirculatesaroundtheresultthat,consumingtoomuchtimeforlanguageartsandmathematicsmaylimitchildren'sexperience—andcuriosityandinterest—insciences.[70] Effectsonschoolandstudents[edit] Giftedstudents[edit] NCLBpressuresschoolstoguaranteethatnearlyallstudentsmeettheminimumskilllevels(setbyeachstate)inreading,writing,andarithmetic—butrequiresnothingbeyondtheseminima.Itprovidesnoincentivestoimprovestudentachievementbeyondthebareminimum.[71]Programsnotessentialforachievingmandatedminimumskillsareneglectedorcanceledbythosedistricts.[72] Inparticular,NCLBdoesnotrequireanyprogramsforgifted,talented,andotherhigh-performingstudents.[73]Federalfundingofgiftededucationdecreasedbyathirdoverthelaw'sfirstfiveyears.[73]Therewasonlyoneprogramthathelpedimprovethegifted:theyreceived$9.6million.Inthe2007budget,PresidentGeorgeW.Bushzeroedthisout.[74]WhileNCLBissilentontheeducationofacademicallygiftedstudents,somestates(suchasArizona,California,Virginia,andPennsylvania)requireschoolstoidentifygiftedstudentsandprovidethemwithanappropriateeducation,includinggradeadvancement.Accordingtoresearch,anIQof120isneeded.[74]Inotherstates,suchasMichigan,statefundingforgiftedandtalentedprogramswascutbyupto90%intheyearaftertheActbecamelaw.[73] A2008studybytheFordhamInstitutesuggeststhatthelackofincentiveforschoolstomeettheneedsofhighachievingstudentshadseriousconsequences:whilebetween2000and2007studentsinthelowest10thpercentile(lowperformers)hadimprovedtheiraverageperformanceonthe4thgradereadingportionoftheNationalAssessmentofEducationalProgressby16points,thescoresofthehighest-performingstudents(90thpercentileandabove)hardlybudged.[75] Unrealisticgoals[edit] "There'safallacyinthelawandeverybodyknowsit,"saidAlabamaStateSuperintendentJoeMortononWednesday,August11,2010.AccordingtotheNoChildLeftBehindAct,by2014,everychildissupposedtotestongradelevelinreadingandmath."Thatcan'thappen,"saidMorton."Youhavetoomanyvariablesandyouhavetoomanyscenarios,andeverybodyknowsthatwouldneverhappen."AlabamaStateBoardMemberMaryJaneCaylorsaid,"Idon'tthinkthatNoChildLeftBehindhasbenefitedthisstate."Shearguedthegoalof100percentproficiencyisunattainable.[76]CharlesMurraywroteofthelaw:"TheUnitedStatesCongress,actingwithlargebipartisanmajorities,attheurgingofthePresident,enactedasthelawofthelandthatallchildrenaretobeaboveaverage."[77][78] Gamingthesystem[edit] Seealso:Gamingthesystem Thesystemofincentivesandpenaltiessetsupastrongmotivationforschools,districts,andstatestomanipulatetestresults.Forexample,schoolshavebeenshowntoemploy"creativereclassification"ofhighschooldropouts(toreduceunfavorablestatistics).[79]Forexample,atSharpstownHighSchoolinHouston,Texas,morethan1,000studentsbeganhighschoolasfreshmen,andfouryearslater,fewerthan300studentswereenrolledintheseniorclass.However,noneofthese"missing"studentsfromSharpstownHighwerereportedasdropouts.[80] Variabilityinstudentpotentialand100%compliance[edit] Theactispromotedasrequiring100%ofstudents(includingdisadvantagedandspecialeducationstudents)withinaschooltoreachthesamestatestandardsinreadingandmathematicsby2014;detractorschargethata100%goalisunattainable,andcriticsoftheNCLBrequirementfor"onehigh,challengingstandard"claimthatsomestudentsaresimplyunabletoperformatthegivenlevelfortheirage,nomatterhoweffectivetheteacheris.[81]Whilestatewidestandardsreducetheeducationalinequalitybetweenprivilegedandunderprivilegeddistrictsinastate,theystillimposea"onesizefitsall"standardonindividualstudents.Particularlyinstateswithhighstandards,schoolscanbepunishedfornotbeingabletodramaticallyraisetheachievementofstudentsthatmayhavebelow-averagecapabilities[citationneeded]. Theterm"all"inNCLBendedupmeaninglessthan100%ofstudents,becausebythetimethe100%requirementwastotakeeffectin2015,nostatehadreachedthegoalofhaving100%ofstudentpasstheproficiencybar.[82]StudentswhohaveanIndividualEducationPlan(IEP)andwhoareassessedmustreceivetheaccommodationsspecifiedintheIEPduringassessment;iftheseaccommodationsdonotchangethenatureoftheassessment,thenthesestudents'scoresarecountedthesameasanyotherstudent'sscore.Commonacceptablechangesincludeextendedtesttime,testinginaquieterroom,translationofmathproblemsintothestudent'snativelanguage,orallowingastudenttotypeanswersinsteadofwritingthembyhand. Simplybeingclassifiedashavingspecialeducationneedsdoesnotautomaticallyexemptstudentsfromassessment.Moststudentswithmilddisabilitiesorphysicaldisabilitiestakethesametestasnon-disabledstudents. Inadditiontonotrequiring5%ofstudentstobeassessedatall,regulationsletschoolsusealternateassessmentstodeclareupto1%ofallstudentsproficientforthepurposesoftheAct.[83]Statesaregivenbroaddiscretioninselectingalternateassessments.Forexample,aschoolmayacceptanAdvancedPlacementtestforEnglishinlieuoftheEnglishtestwrittenbythestate,andsimplifiedtestsforstudentswithsignificantcognitivedisabilities.TheVirginiaAlternateAssessmentProgram(VAAP)andVirginiaGradeLevelAlternative(VGLA)options,forexample,areportfolioassessments.[84] OrganizationsthatsupportNCLBassessmentofdisabledorlimitedEnglishproficient(LEP)studentssaythatinclusionensuresthatdeficienciesintheeducationofthesedisadvantagedstudentsareidentifiedandaddressed.OpponentssaythattestingstudentswithdisabilitiesviolatestheIndividualswithDisabilitiesEducationAct(IDEA)bymakingstudentswithdisabilitieslearnthesamematerialasnon-disabledstudents.[85] Childrenwithdisabilities[edit] NCLBincludesincentivestorewardschoolsshowingprogressforstudentswithdisabilitiesandothermeasurestofixorprovidestudentswithalternativeoptionsthanschoolsnotmeetingtheneedsofthedisabledpopulation.[86]ThelawiswrittensothatthescoresofstudentswithIEPs(IndividualizedEducationPlans)and504plansarecountedjustasotherstudents'scoresarecounted.[citationneeded]SchoolshavearguedagainsthavingdisabledpopulationsinvolvedintheirAYPmeasurementsbecausetheyclaimthattherearetoomanyvariablesinvolved.[citationneeded] AligningtheIndividualswithDisabilitiesEducationAct[edit] StemmingfromtheEducationforAllHandicappedChildrenAct(EAHCA)of1975,theIndividualswithDisabilitiesEducationAct(IDEA)wasenactedinitsfirstformin1991,andthenreenactedwithneweducationaspectsin2006(althoughstillreferredtoasIDEA2004).ItkepttheEAHCArequirementsoffreeandaccessibleeducationforallchildren.The2004IDEAauthorizedformulagrantstostatesanddiscretionarygrantsforresearch,technology,andtraining.Italsorequiredschoolstouseresearch-basedinterventionstoassiststudentswithdisabilities. Theamountoffundingeachschoolwouldreceivefromits"LocalEducationAgency"foreachyearwouldbedividedbythenumberofchildrenwithdisabilitiesandmultipliedbythenumberofstudentswithdisabilitiesparticipatingintheschoolwideprograms.[87][88] Particularlysince2004,policymakershavesoughttoalignIDEAwithNCLB.[89]ThemostobviouspointsofalignmentincludethesharedrequirementsforHighlyQualifiedTeachers,forestablishmentofgoalsforstudentswithspecialneeds,andforassessmentlevelsforthesestudents.In2004,GeorgeBushsignedprovisionsthatwoulddefineforbothoftheseactswhatwasconsidereda"highlyqualifiedteacher."[90] Positiveeffectsforstudentswithdisabilities[edit] TheNationalCouncilonDisability(NCD)looksathowNCLBandIDEAareimprovingoutcomesforstudentswithDownsyndrome.Theeffectstheyinvestigateincludereducingthenumberofstudentswhodropout,increasinggraduationrates,andeffectivestrategiestotransitionstudentstopost-secondaryeducation.TheirstudieshavereportedthatNCLBandIDEAhavechangedtheattitudesandexpectationsforstudentswithdisabilities.Theyarepleasedthatstudentsarefinallyincludedinstateassessmentandaccountabilitysystems.NCLBmadeassessmentsbetaken"seriously,"theyfound,asnowassessmentsandaccommodationsareunderreviewbyadministrators.[91] AnotherorganizationthatfoundpositivecorrelationsbetweenNCLBandIDEAwastheNationalCenteronEducationalOutcomes.Itpublishedabrochureforparentsofstudentswithdisabilitiesabouthowthetwo(NCLB&IDEA)workwelltogetherbecausethey"providebothindividualizedinstructionandschoolaccountabilityforstudentsanddisabilities."Theyspecificallyhighlightthenewfocuson"sharedresponsibilityofgeneralandspecialeducationteachers,"forcingschoolstohavedisabledstudentsmoreontheirradar."Theydoacknowledge,however,thatforeachstudentto"participateinthegeneralcurriculum[ofhighstandardsforallstudents]andmakeprogresstowardproficiency,"additionaltimeandeffortforcoordinationareneeded.[92]TheNationalCenteronEducationalOutcomesreportedthatnowdisabledstudentswillreceive"...theacademicattentionandresourcestheydeserved."[93] Particularresearchhasbeendoneonhowthelawsimpactstudentswhoaredeaforhardofhearing.First,thelegislationmakesschoolsresponsibleforhowstudentswithdisabilitiesscore—emphasizing"...studentoutcomesinsteadofplacement."[94]Italsoputsthepublic'seyeonhowoutsideprogramscanbeutilizedtoimproveoutcomesforthisunderservedpopulation,andhasthuspromptedmoreresearchontheeffectivenessofcertainin-andout-of-schoolinterventions.Forexample,NCLBrequirementshavemaderesearchersbegintostudytheeffectsofreadaloudorinterpretersonbothreadingandmathematicsassessments,andonhavingstudentssignresponsesthatarethenrecordedbyascribe. Still,researchthusfaronthepositiveeffectsofNCLB/IDEAislimited.Ithasbeenaimedatyoungstudentsinanattempttofindstrategiestohelpthemlearntoread.Evaluationsalsohaveincludedalimitednumberofstudents,whichmakeitverydifficulttodrawconclusionstoabroadergroup.Evaluationsalsofocusonlyononetypeofdisabilities. Negativeeffectsforstudentswithdisabilities[edit] TheNationalCouncilforDisabilitieshadreservationsabouthowtheregulationsofNCLBfitwiththoseofIDEA.OneconcernishowschoolscaneffectivelyinterveneanddevelopstrategieswhenNCLBcallsforgroupaccountabilityratherthanindividualstudentattention.[95]TheIndividualnatureofIDEAis"inconsistentwiththegroupnatureofNCLB."[96]TheyworrythatNCLBfocusestoomuchonstandardizedtestingandnotenoughonthework-basedexperiencenecessaryforobtainingjobsinthefuture.Also,NCLBismeasuredessentiallybyasingletestscore,butIDEAcallsforvariousmeasuresofstudentsuccess. IDEA'sfocusonvariousmeasuresstemsfromitsfoundationinIndividualizedEducationPlansforstudentswithdisabilities(IEP).AnIEPisdesignedtogivestudentswithdisabilitiesindividualgoalsthatareoftennotontheirgradelevel.AnIEPisintendedfor"developinggoalsandobjectivesthatcorrespondtotheneedsofthestudent,andultimatelychoosingaplacementintheleastrestrictiveenvironmentpossibleforthestudent."[97]UndertheIEP,studentscouldbeabletolegallyhaveloweredsuccesscriteriaforacademicsuccess. A2006reportbytheCenterforEvaluationandEducationPolicy(CEEP)andtheIndianaInstituteonDisabilityandCommunityindicatedthatmoststateswerenotmakingAYPbecauseofspecialeducationsubgroupseventhoughprogresshadbeenmadetowardthatend.Thiswasineffectpushingschoolstocanceltheinclusionmodelandkeepspecialeducationstudentsseparate."IDEAcallsforindividualizedcurriculumandassessmentsthatdeterminesuccessbasedongrowthandimprovementeachyear.NCLB,incontrast,measuresallstudentsbythesamemarkers,whicharebasednotonindividualimprovementbutbyproficiencyinmathandreading,"thestudystates.[98]WheninterviewedwiththeIndianaUniversityNewsroom,authoroftheCEEPreportSandiColesaid,"Thesystemneedstomakesense.Don'twewanttoknowhowmuchachildisprogressingtowardsthestandards?...Weneedasystemthatvalueslearningandgrowthovertime,inadditiontohelpingstudentsreachhighstandards."[99]ColefoundinhersurveythatNCLBencouragesteacherstoteachtothetest,limitingcurriculumchoices/options,andtousethespecialeducationstudentsasa"scapegoat"fortheirschoolnotmakingAYP.Inaddition,IndianaadministratorswhorespondedtothesurveyindicatedthatNCLBtestinghasledtohighernumbersofstudentswithdisabilitiesdroppingoutofschool. LegaljournalshavealsocommentedontheincompatibilityofIDEAandNCLB;somesaytheactsmayneverbereconciledwithoneanother.[100]TheypointoutthatanIEPisdesignedspecificallyforindividualstudentachievement,whichgivestherightstoparentstoensurethattheschoolsarefollowingthenecessaryprotocolsofFreeAppropriatePublicEducation(FAPE).Theyworrythatnotenoughemphasisisbeingplacedonthechild'sIEPwiththissetup.InBoardofEducationforOttawaTownshipHighSchoolDistrict140v.Spelling,twoIllinoisschooldistrictsandparentsofdisabledstudentschallengedthelegalityofNCLB'stestingrequirementsinlightofIDEA'smandatetoprovidestudentswithindividualizededucation.[100]: 5 Althoughstudentstherewerealignedwith"proficiency"tostatestandards,studentsdidnotmeetrequirementsoftheirIEP.TheirparentsfearedthatstudentswerenotgivenrighttoFAPE.Thecasequestionedwhichbetterindicatedprogress:standardizedtestmeasures,orIEPmeasures?Itconcludedthatsincesomestudentsmaynevertestongradelevel,allstudentswithdisabilitiesshouldbegivenmoreoptionsandaccommodationswithstandardizedtestingthantheycurrentlyreceive. Effectsonracialandethnicminoritystudents[edit] Attentiontominoritypopulations[edit] TheActseekstonarrowtheclassandracialachievementgapintheUnitedStatesbycreatingcommonexpectationsforall.NCLBhasshownmixedsuccessineliminatingtheracialachievementgap.Althoughthereisevidencetosupportthestatementthattestscoresareimproving,studiesdonotfindevidencethatracialachievementgapshavenarrowedinasignificantwaysincethelegislationwasenacted.[101][102] NCLBrequiresschoolsanddistrictstofocustheirattentionontheacademicachievementoftraditionallyunder-servedgroupsofchildren,suchaslow-incomestudents,studentswithdisabilities,andstudentsof"majorracialandethnicsubgroups".[103]Eachstateisresponsiblefordefiningmajorracialandethnicsubgroupsitself.[103]Manypreviousstate-createdsystemsofaccountabilitymeasuredonlyaverageschoolperformance—soschoolscouldbehighlyratedeveniftheyhadlargeachievementgapsbetweenaffluentanddisadvantagedstudents.[104] Staterefusaltoproducenon-Englishassessments[edit] AllstudentswhoarelearningEnglishwouldhaveanautomaticthree-yearwindowtotakeassessmentsintheirnativelanguage,afterwhichtheymustnormallydemonstrateproficiencyonanEnglish-languageassessment.However,thelocaleducationauthoritymaygrantanexceptiontoanyindividualEnglishlearnerforanothertwoyears'testinginhisorhernativelanguageonacase-by-casebasis. Inpractice,however,only10stateschoosetotestanyEnglishlanguagelearnersintheirnativelanguage(almostentirelySpanishspeakers).ThevastmajorityofEnglishlanguagelearnersaregivenEnglishlanguageassessments.[105] ManyschoolstestorassessstudentswithlimitedEnglishproficiencyevenwhenthestudentsareexemptfromNCLB-mandatedreporting,becausethetestsmayprovideusefulinformationtotheteacherandschool.Incertainschoolswithlargeimmigrantpopulations,thisexemptioncomprisesamajorityofyoungstudents. NCLBtestingunder-reportslearningatnon-English-languageimmersionschools,particularlythosethatimmersestudentsinNativeAmericanlanguages.NCLBrequiressomeNativeAmericanstudentstotakestandardizedtestsinEnglish.[106]Inothercases,thestudentscouldbelegallytestedintheirnativelanguage,exceptthatthestatehasnotpaidtohavethetesttranslated. DemographicstudyofAYPfailureratesandrequirementforfailingschools[edit] OnestudyfoundthatschoolsinCaliforniaandIllinoisthathavenotmetAYPserve75–85%minoritystudentswhileschoolsmeetingAYPhavelessthan40%minoritystudents.[107]SchoolsthatdonotmeetAYParerequiredtooffertheirstudents'parentstheopportunitytotransfertheirstudentstoanon-failingschoolwithinthedistrict,butitisnotrequiredthattheotherschoolacceptsthestudent.[108]NCLBcontrolstheportionoffederalTitleIfundingbaseduponeachschoolmeetingannualsetstandards.AnyparticipatingschoolthatdoesnotmakeAdequateYearlyProgress(AYP)fortwoyearsmustofferparentsthechoicetosendtheirchildtoanon-failingschoolinthedistrict,andafterthreeyears,mustprovidesupplementalservices,suchasfreetutoringorafter-schoolassistance.AfterfiveyearsofnotmeetingAYP,theschoolmustmakedramaticchangestohowtheschoolisrun,whichcouldentailstate-takeover.[109] Funding[edit] AspartoftheirsupportforNCLB,theadministrationandCongressbackedmassiveincreasesinfundingforelementaryandsecondaryeducation.Totalfederaleducationfundingincreasedfrom$42.2billionin2001(thefiscalyearbeforethelaw'spassage)upto$55.7billionin2004.[110]Anew$1billionReadingFirstprogramwascreated,distributingfundstolocalschoolstoimprovetheteachingofreading,andover$100millionforitscompanion,EarlyReadingFirst.[111]Numerousotherformulaprogramsreceivedlargeincreasesaswell.Thiswasconsistentwiththeadministration'spositionoffundingformulaprograms,whichdistributemoneytolocalschoolsfortheiruse,andgrantprograms,whereparticularschoolsorgroupsapplydirectlytothefederalgovernmentforfunding.Intotal,federalfundingforeducationincreased59.8%from2000to2003.[112] Theactcreatedanewcompetitive-grantprogramcalledReadingFirst,fundedat$1.02billionin2004,tohelpstatesanddistrictssetup"scientific,research-based"readingprogramsforchildreningradesK–3(withprioritygiventohigh-povertyareas).Asmallerearly-readingprogramsoughttohelpstatesbetterprepare3-to5-year-oldsindisadvantagedareastoread.Theprogram'sfundingwaslatercutdrasticallybyCongressamidbudgettalks.[113] FundingChanges:ThroughanalterationintheTitleIfundingformula,theNoChildLeftBehindActwasexpectedtobettertargetresourcestoschooldistrictswithhighconcentrationsofpoorchildren.Thelawalsoincludedprovisionsintendedtogivestatesanddistrictsgreaterflexibilityinhowtheyspentaportionoftheirfederalallotments.[113] FundingforschooltechnologyusedinclassroomsaspartofNCLBisadministeredbytheEnhancingEducationThroughTechnologyProgram(EETT).Fundingsourcesareusedforequipment,professionaldevelopmentandtrainingforeducators,andupdatedresearch.EETTallocatesfundsbyformulatostates.Thestates,inturn,reallocate50%ofthefundstolocaldistrictsbyTitleIformulaand50%competitively.Whiledistrictsmustreserveaminimumof25%ofallEETTfundsforprofessionaldevelopment,recentstudiesindicatethatmostEETTrecipientsusefarmorethan25%oftheirEETTfundstotrainteacherstousetechnologyandintegrateitintotheircurricula.Infact,EETTrecipientscommittedmorethan$159millioninEETTfundstowardsprofessionaldevelopmentduringthe2004–05schoolyearalone.Moreover,eventhoughEETTrecipientsareaffordedbroaddiscretionintheiruseofEETTfunds,surveysshowthattheytargetEETTdollarstowardsimprovingstudentachievementinreadingandmathematics,engagingindata-drivendecisionmaking,andlaunchingonlineassessmentprograms.[114] Inaddition,theprovisionsofNCLBpermittedincreasedflexibilityforstateandlocalagenciesintheuseoffederaleducationmoney.[112] TheNCLBincreaseswerecompanionstoanothermassiveincreaseinfederaleducationfundingatthattime.TheBushadministrationandcongresspassedverylargeincreasesinfundingfortheIndividualswithDisabilitiesEducationAct(IDEA)atthesametimeastheNCLBincreases.IDEAPartB,astateformula-fundingprogramthatdistributesmoneytolocaldistrictsfortheeducationofstudentswithdisabilities,wasincreasedfrom$6.3billionin2001to$10.1billionin2004.[115]Becauseadistrict'sandstate'sperformanceonNCLBmeasuresdependedonimprovedperformancebystudentswithdisabilities,particularly,studentswithlearningdisabilities,this60percentincreaseinfundingwasalsoanimportantpartoftheoverallapproachtoNCLBimplementation. Criticismsoffundinglevels[edit] SomecriticsclaimthatextraexpensesarenotfullyreimbursedbyincreasedlevelsoffederalNCLBfunding.Othersnotethatfundingforthelawincreasedmassivelyfollowingpassage[116]andthatbillionsinfundspreviouslyallocatedtoparticularusescouldbereallocatedtonewuses.Evenbeforethelaw'spassage,SecretaryofEducationRodPaigenotedensuringthatchildrenareeducatedremainedastateresponsibilityregardlessoffederalsupport: Washingtoniswillingtohelp[withtheadditionalcostsoffederalrequirements],aswe'vehelpedbefore,evenbeforewe[proposedNCLB].Butthisisapartoftheteachingresponsibilitythateachstatehas....Washingtonhasofferedsomeassistancenow.Inthelegislation,wehave...somesupporttopayforthedevelopmentoftests.Butevenifthatshouldbelookedatasagift,itisthestateresponsibilitytodothis.— [117] VariousearlyDemocraticsupportersofNCLBcriticizeitsimplementation,claimingitisnotadequatelyfundedbyeitherthefederalgovernmentorthestates.TedKennedy,thelegislation'sinitialsponsor,oncestated:"Thetragedyisthattheselongoverduereformsarefinallyinplace,butthefundsarenot."[118]SusanB.Neuman,U.S.DepartmentofEducation'sformerAssistantSecretaryforElementaryandSecondaryEducation,commentedaboutherworriesofNCLBinameetingoftheInternationalReadingAssociation: In[themostdisadvantagedschools]inAmerica,eventhemostearnestteacherhasoftengivenupbecausetheylackeveryavailableresourcethatcouldpossiblymakeadifference....Whenwesayallchildrencanachieveandthennotgivethemtheadditionalresources...wearecreatingafantasy.— [119] Organizationshaveparticularlycriticizedtheunwillingnessofthefederalgovernmentto"fullyfund"theact.NotingthatappropriationsbillsalwaysoriginateintheHouseofRepresentatives,itistruethatduringtheBushAdministration,neithertheSenatenortheWhiteHousehasevenrequestedfederalfundinguptotheauthorizedlevelsforseveraloftheact'smainprovisions.Forexample,PresidentBushrequestedonly$13.3billionofapossible$22.75billionin2006.[120]AdvocacygroupsnotethatPresidentBush's2008budgetproposalallotted$61billionfortheEducationDepartment,cuttingfundingby$1.3billionfromtheyearbefore.44outof50stateswouldhavereceivedreductionsinfederalfundingifthebudgetpassedasitwas.[121]Specifically,fundingfortheEnhancingEducationThroughTechnologyProgram(EETT)hascontinuedtodropwhilethedemandfortechnologyinschoolshasincreased(TechnologyandLearning,2006).However,theseclaimsfocusedonreallocatedfunds,aseachofPresidentBush'sproposedbudgetsincreasedfundingformajorNCLBformulaprogramssuchasTitleI,includinghisfinal2009budgetproposal.[110] MembersofCongresshaveviewedtheseauthorizedlevelsasspendingcaps,notspendingpromises.Someopponentsarguethatthesefundingshortfallsmeanthatschoolsfacedwiththesystemofescalatingpenaltiesforfailingtomeettestingtargetsaredeniedtheresourcesnecessarytoremedyproblemsdetectedbytesting.However,federalNCLBformulafundingincreasedbybillionsduringthisperiod[116]andstateandlocalfundingincreasedbyover$100billionfromschoolyear2001–02through2006–07.[122] Infiscalyear2007,$75billionincostswereshiftedfromNCLB,addingfurtherstressesonstatebudgets.[123]Thisdecreaseresultedinschoolscuttingprogramsthatservedtoeducatechildren,whichsubsequentlyimpactedtheabilitytomeetthegoalsofNCLB.Thedecreaseinfundingcameatatimewhentherewasanincreaseinexpectationsforschoolperformance.Tomakeendsmeet,manyschoolsre-allocatedfundsthathadbeenintendedforotherpurposes(e.g.,arts,sports,etc.)toachievethenationaleducationalgoalssetbyNCLB.Congressacknowledgedthesefundingdecreasesandretroactivelyprovidedthefundstocovershortfalls,butwithouttheguaranteeofpermanentaid.[124] ThenumberoneareawherefundingwascutfromthenationalbudgetwasinTitleIfundingfordisadvantagedstudentsandschools.[125][citationneeded] Stateeducationbudgets[edit] AccordingtothebookNCLBMeetsSchoolRealities,theactwasputintoactionduringatimeoffiscalcrisisformoststates.[126]Whilestateswerebeingforcedtomakebudgetcuts,includingintheareaofeducation,theyhadtoincuradditionalexpensestocomplywiththerequirementsoftheNCLBAct.ThefundingtheyreceivedfromthefederalgovernmentinsupportofNCLBwasnotenoughtocovertheaddedexpensenecessarytoadheretothenewlaw. Proposalsforreform[edit] TheJointOrganizationalStatementonNoChildLeftBehind[127]isaproposalbymorethan135nationalcivilrights,education,disabilityadvocacy,civic,labor,andreligiousgroupsthathavesignedontoastatementcallingformajorchangestothefederaleducationlaw.TheNationalCenterforFair&OpenTesting(FairTest)initiatedandchairedthemeetingsthatproducedthestatement,originallyreleasedinOctober2004.Thestatement'scentralmessageisthat"thelaw'semphasisneedstoshiftfromapplyingsanctionsforfailingtoraisetestscorestoholdingstatesandlocalitiesaccountableformakingthesystemicchangesthatimprovestudentachievement."Thenumberoforganizationssigningthestatementhasnearlyquadrupledsinceitwaslaunchedinlate2004andcontinuestogrow.ThegoalistoinfluenceCongress,andthebroaderpublic,asthelaw'sscheduledreauthorizationapproaches. EducationcriticAlfieKohnarguesthattheNCLBlawis"unredeemable"andshouldbescrapped.Heisquotedsaying"[I]tsmaineffecthasbeentosentencepoorchildrentoanendlessregimenoftest-preparationdrills".[128] InFebruary2007,formerHealthandHumanServicesSecretaryTommyThompsonandGeorgiaGovernorRoyBarnes,Co-ChairsoftheAspenCommissiononNoChildLeftBehind,announcedthereleaseoftheCommission'sfinalrecommendationsforthereauthorizationoftheNoChildLeftBehindAct.[129]TheCommissionisanindependent,bipartisanefforttoimproveNCLBandensureitisamoreusefulforceinclosingtheachievementgapthatseparatesdisadvantagedchildrenandtheirpeers.Afterayearofhearings,analysis,andresearch,theCommissionuncoveredthesuccessesofNCLB,aswellasprovisionsthatmustbesignificantlychanged. TheCommission'sgoalsare: Haveeffectiveteachersforallstudents,effectiveprincipalsforallcommunities Accelerateprogressandachievementgapsclosedthroughimprovedaccountability Movebeyondstatusquotoeffectiveschoolimprovementandstudentoptions Havefairandaccurateassessmentsofstudentprogress Havehighstandardsforeverystudentineverystate Ensurehighschoolspreparestudentsforcollegeandtheworkplace Driveprogressthroughreliable,accuratedata Encourageparentalinvolvementandempowerment TheForumonEducationalAccountability(FEA),aworkinggroupofsignersoftheJointOrganizationalStatementonNCLBhasofferedanalternativeproposal.[130]ItproposestoshiftNCLBfromapplyingsanctionsforfailingtoraisetestscorestosupportingstateandcommunitiesandholdingthemaccountableastheymakesystemicchangesthatimprovestudentlearning. WhilemanycriticsandpolicymakersbelievetheNCLBlegislationhasmajorflaws,itappearsthepolicywillbeineffectforthelong-term,thoughnotwithoutmajormodifications. PresidentBarackObamareleasedablueprintforreformoftheElementaryandSecondaryEducationAct,thesuccessortoNoChildLeftBehind,inMarch2010.Specificrevisionsincludeprovidingfundsforstatestoimplementabroaderrangeofassessmentstoevaluateadvancedacademicskills,includingstudents'abilitiestoconductresearch,usetechnology,engageinscientificinvestigation,solveproblems,andcommunicateeffectively. Inaddition,ObamaproposesthattheNCLBlegislationlessenitsstringentaccountabilitypunishmentstostatesbyfocusingmoreonstudentimprovement.Improvementmeasureswouldencompassassessingallchildrenappropriately,includingEnglishlanguagelearners,minorities,andspecialneedsstudents.Theschoolsystemwouldbere-designedtoconsidermeasuresbeyondreadingandmathtests;andwouldpromoteincentivestokeepstudentsenrolledinschoolthroughgraduation,ratherthanencouragingstudentdrop-outtoincreaseAYPscores.[131] Obama'sobjectivesalsoentailloweringtheachievementgapbetweenBlackandWhitestudentsandalsoincreasingthefederalbudgetby$3billiontohelpschoolsmeetthestrictmandatesofthebill.Therehasalsobeenaproposal,putforwardbytheObamaadministration,thatstatesincreasetheiracademicstandardsafteradumbingdownperiod,focusonre-classifyingschoolsthathavebeenlabeledasfailing,anddevelopanewevaluationprocessforteachersandeducators.[132] Thefederalgovernment'sgradualinvestmentinpublicsocialprovisionsprovidestheNCLBActaforumtodeliveronitspromisetoimproveachievementforallofitsstudents.EducationcriticsarguethatalthoughthelegislationismarkedasanimprovementtotheESEAinde-segregatingthequalityofeducationinschools,itisactuallyharmful.Thelegislationhasbecomevirtuallytheonlyfederalsocialpolicymeanttoaddresswide-scalesocialinequities,anditspolicyfeaturesinevitablystigmatizebothschoolsattendedbychildrenofthepoorandchildreningeneral. Moreover,criticsfurtherarguethatthecurrentpoliticallandscapeofthiscountry,whichfavorsmarket-basedsolutionstosocialandeconomicproblems,haserodedtrustinpublicinstitutionsandhasunderminedpoliticalsupportforanexpansiveconceptofsocialresponsibility,whichsubsequentlyresultsinadisinvestmentintheeducationofthepoorandprivatizationofAmericanschools. SkepticspositthatNCLBprovidesdistinctpoliticaladvantagestoDemocrats,whosefocusonaccountabilityoffersawayforthemtospeakofequalopportunityandavoidbeingclassifiedasthepartyofbiggovernment,specialinterests,andminoritygroups—acommonaccusationfromRepublicanswhowanttodiscreditwhattheyseeasthetraditionalDemocraticagenda.OpponentspositthatNCLBhasinadvertentlyshiftedthedebateoneducationandracialinequalitytotraditionalpoliticalalliances.Consequently,majorpoliticaldiscordremainsbetweenthosewhoopposefederaloversightofstateandlocalpracticesandthosewhoviewNCLBintermsofcivilrightsandeducationalequality.[133] Intheplan,theObamaAdministrationrespondstocritiquesthatstandardizedtestingfailstocapturehigherlevelthinkingbyoutliningnewsystemsofevaluationtocapturemoreindepthassessmentsonstudentachievement.[134]HisplancameontheheelsoftheannouncementoftheRacetotheTopinitiative,a$4.35billionreformprogramfinancedbytheDepartmentofEducationthroughtheAmericanRecoveryandReinvestmentActof2009.[135] Obamasaysthataccurateassessments"...canbeusedtoaccuratelymeasurestudentgrowth;tobettermeasurehowstates,districts,schools,principals,andteachersareeducatingstudents;tohelpteachersadjustandfocustheirteaching,andtoprovidebetterinformationtostudentsandtheirfamilies."[134]Hehaspledgedtosupportstategovernmentsintheireffortstoimprovestandardizedtestprovisionsbyupgradingthestandardstheyaresettomeasure.Todothis,thefederalgovernmentgivesstatesgrantstohelpdevelopandimplementassessmentsbasedonhigherstandardssotheycanmoreaccuratelymeasureschoolprogress.[134]ThismirrorsprovisionsintheRacetotheTopprogramthatrequirestatestomeasureindividualachievementthroughsophisticateddatacollectionfromkindergartentohighereducation. WhileObamaplanstoimprovethequalityofstandardizedtesting,hedoesnotplantoeliminatethetestingrequirementsandaccountabilitymeasuresproducedbystandardizedtests.Rather,heprovidesadditionalresourcesandflexibilitytomeetnewgoals.[136]CriticsofObama'sreformeffortsmaintainthathigh-stakestestingisdetrimentaltoschoolsuccessacrossthecountry,becauseitencouragesteachersto"teachtothetest"andplacesunduepressureonteachersandschoolsiftheyfailtomeetbenchmarks.[137] There-authorizationprocesshasbecomesomewhatofacontroversy,aslawmakersandpoliticianscontinuallydebateaboutthechangesthatmustbemadetothebilltomakeitworkbestfortheeducationalsystem.[138] Waivers[edit] In2012,PresidentObamagrantedwaiversfromNCLBrequirementstoseveralstates."Inexchangeforthatflexibility,thosestates'haveagreedtoraisestandards,improveaccountability,andundertakeessentialreformstoimproveteachereffectiveness,'theWhiteHousesaidinastatement."[139] February9,2012–Colorado,Florida,Georgia,Indiana,Kentucky,Massachusetts,Minnesota,NewJersey,Oklahoma,andTennessee February15,2012–NewMexico May29,2012–Connecticut,Delaware,Louisiana,Maryland,NewYork,NorthCarolina,Ohio,andRhodeIsland June29,2012–Arkansas,Missouri,SouthDakota,Utah,andVirginia July6,2012–WashingtonandWisconsin Eightofthe32NCLBwaiversgrantedtostatesareconditional,meaningthosestateshavenotentirelysatisfiedtheadministration'srequirementsandpartoftheirplansareunderreview.[140] ThewaiversofArizona,Oregon,andKansasareconditional,accordingtoActingAssistantSecretaryforElementaryandSecondaryEducationMichaelYudin.Arizonahasnotyetreceivedstateboardapprovalforteacherevaluations,andKansasandOregonarebothstilldevelopingteacherandprincipalevaluationguidelines. Inaddition,fivestatesthatdidnotcompletethewaiverprocess—andonewhoseapplicationwasrejected—gotaone-yearfreezeontherisingtargetsforstandardizedtestscores:Alabama,Alaska,Idaho,Iowa,Maine,andWestVirginia.[141] Replacement[edit] OnApril30,2015,abillwasintroducedtoCongresstoreplacetheNoChildLeftBehindAct,theEveryStudentSucceedsAct,whichwaspassedbytheHouseonDecember2andtheSenateonDecember9,beforebeingsignedintolawbyPresidentObamaonDecember10,2015.[7][142]Thisbillaffordsstatesmoreflexibilityinregardstosettingtheirownrespectivestandardsformeasuringschoolaswellasstudentperformance.[6][143] Seealso[edit] AnnenbergFoundationviaAnnenbergSchoolReformInstituteMajorSupporterofProgram Campbell'slaw EdisonSchools Educationpolicy Englishimmersionresourcesforimmigrantstudents FairTest Learningdisability ListofstandardizedtestsintheUnitedStates MentalhealthprovisionsinTitleVoftheNoChildLeftBehindActof2001 OhioGraduationTest PrairieStateAchievementExamination RacetotheTop SchoolImprovementGrant 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^ab"ChartingtheCourse:StatesDecideMajorProvisionsUnderNoChildLeftBehind".U.S.DepartmentofEducation(Pressrelease).January14,2004.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonFebruary10,2004.RetrievedOctober24,2021.{{citepressrelease}}:CS1maint:unfitURL(link) ^Kim,J.S.;Sunderman,G.L.(2005)."MeasuringAcademicProficiencyUndertheNoChildLeftBehindAct:ImplicationsforEducationalEquity".EducationalResearcher.34(8):3–13.doi:10.3102/0013189x034008003.ISSN 0013-189X.S2CID 145548070–viaJSTOR. ^Crawford,J.(nd)NoChildLeftBehind:MisguidedApproachtoSchoolAccountabilityforEnglishLanguageLearnersArchived2013-04-08attheWaybackMachine.NationalAssociationforBilingualEducation.RetrievedJune7,2007. ^"NativeAmericanLanguagesAct:TwentyYearsLater,HasItMadeaDifference?".CulturalSurvival.RetrievedJune24,2013. ^Owens,A.,&Sunderman,G.L.(2006).SchoolAccountabilityunderNCLB:AidorObstacleforMeasuringRacialEquity?Cambridge,MA:CivilRightsProjectatHarvardUniversity. 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Furtherreading[edit] Mcguinn,PatrickJ.NoChildLeftBehindAndtheTransformationofFederalEducationPolicy,1965–2005(2006)excerptandtextsearch Rhodes,JesseH.AnEducationinPolitics:TheOriginsandEvolutionofNoChildLeftBehind(CornellUniversityPress;2012)264pages;exploresroleofcivil-rightsactivists,businessleaders,andeducationexpertsinpassingthelegislation. Externallinks[edit] Wikisourcehasoriginaltextrelatedtothisarticle: NoChildLeftBehindActof2001 Lewis,T.(2010).ObamaAdministrationtoPushforNCLBReauthorizationThisYear.Retrieved7July2010. Klein,A.(2015).NoChildLeftBehind:AnOverview.EducationWeek.Retrieved16July2015. Klein,A.(2015).ESEA's50-YearLegacyaBlendofIdealism,PolicyTensions.EducationWeek.Retrieved16July2015. Klein,A.(2015).TheNation'sMainK–12Law:ATimelineoftheESEA.EducationWeek.Retrieved16July2015. NoChildLeftBehindnews.EducationWeek. Brenneman,R.(2015).RebrandingNoChildLeftBehindaToughMarketingCall.EducationWeek.Retrieved16July2015. 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