Aedes albopictus - Factsheet for experts - ECDC

Aedes albopictus feeds on a wide range of hosts. It is also known to be a significant biting nuisance, with the potential to become a serious ... Skiptomaincontent GlobalNavigation Othersites: ECDC EuropeanAntibioticAwarenessDay ESCAIDE-Scientificconference Eurosurveillancejournal EVIP-Vaccinationportal Home Infectiousdiseasetopics Relatedpublichealthtopics Diseasevectors Facts Mosquitofactsheets Aedesalbopictus Mosquitofactsheets AedesaegyptiAedesalbopictusAedesatropalpusAedesjaponicusAedeskoreicusAedestriseriatusAnophelesatroparvusAnopheleslabranchiaeAnophelesplumbeusAnophelessacharoviCulexpipiens Aedesalbopictus-Factsheetforexperts Factsheet Twitter Facebook LinkedIn Mail SPECIESNAME/CLASSIFICATION:Aedes(Stegomyia)albopictus(Skuse)[66] COMMONNAME:Asiantigermosquito,Forestdaymosquito SYNONYMSANDOTHERNAMEINUSE:Stegomyiaalbopicta(sensuReinertetal.[67])  Thismosquitospeciesisaknownvectorofchikungunyavirus,denguevirusanddirofilariasis. Hazardassociatedwithmosquitospecies Currentissues Invasivespecies/globaldispersion Aedesalbopictushasundergoneadramaticglobalexpansionfacilitatedbyhumanactivities,inparticularthemovementofusedtyresand‘luckybamboo’[1].Togetherwithpassivetransitviapublicandprivatetransport,thishasresultedinawidespreadglobaldistributionofAe.albopictus.Itisnowlistedasoneofthetop100invasivespeciesbytheInvasiveSpeciesSpecialistGroup[2]. Ecologicalplasticity ThesuccessoftheinvasionofAe.albopictusisduetoanumberoffactorsincluding:itsecologicalplasticity,strongcompetitiveaptitude,globalizationi.e.increaseoftradeandtravel,lackofsurveillance,andlackofefficientcontrol[1].ClimatechangepredictionssuggestAe.albopictuswillcontinuetobeasuccessfulinvasivespeciesthatwillspreadbeyonditscurrentgeographicalboundaries[3-5].Thismosquitoisalreadyshowingsignsofadaptationtocolderclimates[1,6]whichmayresultindiseasetransmissioninnewareas. Bitinganddiseaserisk Aedesalbopictusfeedsonawiderangeofhosts.Itisalsoknowntobeasignificantbitingnuisance,withthepotentialtobecomeaserioushealththreatasabridgevectorofzoonoticpathogenstohumans[7].Thismosquitospeciesisaknownvectorofchikungunyavirus,denguevirusanddirofilariasis.Anumberofothervirusesaffectinghumanhealthhavealsobeenisolatedfromfield-collectedAe.albopictusindifferentcountries.Moreover,itsrecentinvolvementinthelocalisedtransmissionofchikungunyavirusinItaly[8]andFrance[9,10]anddenguevirusinFrance[11-13]andCroatia[14]highlightstheimportanceofmonitoringthisinvasivespecies. Geographicaldistribution Aedesalbopictushasbeenreportedinthefollowingareas:[1,3,6,7,15-42]. Europe:Albania,Austria(notestablishedtodate),Belgium(notestablishedtodate),Bosnia&Herzegovina,Bulgaria,Croatia,CzechRepublic(notestablishedtodate),France(includingCorsica),Georgia,Germany,Greece,Hungary,Italy(includingSardinia,Sicily,Lampedusa,andotherislands),Malta,Monaco,Montenegro,theNetherlands(notestablishedtodate),Romania,Russia,SanMarino,Serbia(notestablishedtodate),Slovakia(notestablishedtodate),Slovenia,Spain,Switzerland,TurkeyandVaticanCity MiddleEast:Israel,Lebanon,SaudiArabia(tobeconfirmed),Syria,Yemen(tobeconfirmed) Asia&Australasia:Australia(establishedonlyintheTorresStrait,theregionthatseparatesmainlandAustraliafromPapuaNewGuinea),Japan,NewZealand(notestablished),numerousPacificOceanandIndianOceanislands,southernAsia North,CentralAmerica&Caribbean:Barbados(notestablished),Belize,CaymanIslands,CostaRica,Cuba,DominicanRepublic,ElSalvador,Guatemala,Haiti,Honduras,Mexico,Nicaragua,Panama,Trinidad(notestablished),USA SouthAmerica:Argentina,Bolivia(notconfirmed),Brazil,Colombia,Paraguay,Uruguay,Venezuela Africa:Algeria,Cameroon,CentralAfricanRepublic,EquatorialGuinea,Gabon,Madagascar,Nigeria,RepublicofCongo,SouthAfrica(notestablished) ThecurrentknowndistributionofAe.albopictusinEuropeindisplayedonthevectormaps BriefhistoryofspreadandEuropeandistribution Pathways HavingoriginatedintropicalforestsofSouth-EastAsia,Ae.albopictushasspreadglobally.Thisgeographicalspreadhasmostlyoccurredduringthepastthreedecades[1]viapassivetransportofeggsinusedtyresorluckybamboo,thelatterbeingtherouteofimportationintoBelgium,theNetherlandsandCalifornia[16,43,44].Publicorprivatetransportfromheavily-infestedareashasalsoresultedinthepassivetransportationofAe.albopictusintonewareas.PassivetransportfromheavilyinfestedareasviagroundvehiclesisbelievedtobetherouteofintroductionofAe.albopictusintosouthernFrance,Germany,theBalkans,theCzechRepublic,SpainandSwitzerland[19,23,30,45]. Timelineofinitialmovements AedesalbopictuswasfirstreportedinEuropein1979inAlbania[46].In1985itwasreportedinTexas,USAandhassincespreadnorthwardandeastward,havingnowbeenreportedinatleast32USstatesincludingHawaii[38].Thisexpansionwasfacilitatedbythemovementofusedtyresalongtheinterstatehighways[18].InLatinAmericaitwasfirstreportedinBrazilin1986andlaterinMexicoin1988[19].InAfrica,itwasfirstdetectedin1990inSouthAfricabutestablishmentwasonlyreportedin2000fromCameroon[47,48]. InitialimportationandspreadinEurope ThefirstrecordofimportationtoEuropewasinAlbaniain1979butitwassuspectedtobepresentfrom1976.AlthoughAe.albopictusbecameestablishedinAlbania,therewerenoreportsinanyotherEuropeancountryuntil1990,whenitwasfoundinItaly[49].SinceitsimportationintoItalythroughGenoa[23],Ae.albopictushasnowbecomeestablishedinmostareasofthecountry<600mabovesealevelandisabundantinmanyurbanareas[3,50].Duringthefirst10yearsofcolonisationinthecountry,Ae.albopictusspreadthroughout22provinces,mainlyinthenortheastofthecountry[51].Italyisnowthemostheavily-infestedcountryinEurope,withthehighestincidenceintheVenetoandFriuli-Venezia-Giuliaregions,largepartsofLombardiaandEmilia-RomagnaandcoastalareasofcentralItaly[3].ThemosquitowasthenreportedinFrancein1999andBelgiumin2000.Theseinitialimportationsweresubsequentlyeradicatedordiedout,butspreadhasoccurredtoanumberofcountriesinEuropesince2000,includingsouthernFrance. HavingbecomeestablishedinAlbania,ItalyandontheCoted’AzurinFrance,Ae.albopictusisalsoknowntobespreadinginGreece,SpainandtheBalkancountries[23].AedesalbopictushasalsobeenreportedinTicinoinSwitzerlandsince2003,suggestingsporadicintroductionsfromItaly[52].In2004,itwasreportednearBarcelonainSpain,withsomespreadalongtheMediterraneancoast[19].Furthermore,ithasbeenrepeatedlyfoundintheNetherlands(2005,2006and2007)atthepremisesofcompaniesimportingbamboo[43,53]andinMalta[26].TheDutchpopulations,importedwithluckybamboo,havenotestablishedoutsidegreenhouses,suggestingthattheyaretropicalstrains.Besides,populationsarealsoimportedfromUSAviausedtyretrade,andcontrolmeasureshavesofaravoidedtheirestablishment[54].AedesalbopictushasbeentrappedonanumberofoccasionsalongmotorwaysinsouthernGermany,suggestingintroductionbyvehiclesfromsouthernEurope[32,45,55].In2014,alldevelopmentalstageswerefoundoverextendedperiodsoftimeinsouthernGermanyindicatinglocalreproduction[56]. FurtherspecimenswerecollectedatparkinglotsalongmotorwaysandatsomeotherplacesinAustria[31],CzechRepublic[30],andSlovakia[33],butsubsequentsurveysremainednegative[38].Finally,populationshavebeenfoundestablishedinSloveniain2007[57,58],inBulgariain2011[59],Russiain2011[60,61],Turkeyin2011[35]andRomaniain2012[40].  Possiblefutureexpansion  TheabilityforimportedpopulationstoestablishiscurrentlydependentontheoriginofthemosquitoanditsstrainanditisnotalwaysclearwhetherintroductionsintoEuropewillresultinestablishedpopulations.Inthiscontext,itissuggestedthatPortugal,theeasternAdriaticCoast,easternTurkeyandtheCaspianSeacoastofRussiaarethemostlikelyplacesforAe.albopictustoestablishitselfinEurope[7].RiskmappingprojectionssuggestthatfurtherexpansionofthisspecieswilloccurintheMediterraneanbasintowardstheeastandthewest,aswellasinthecoastalareasofGreece,TurkeyandtheBalkancountries.IncorporationofclimatechangeprojectionssuggeststhatovertimemostofEuropewillbecomemoresuitableforAe.albopictusestablishment[3,62,63].EspeciallyWesternEurope(Belgium,France,LuxembourgandtheNetherlands)willprovidefavourableclimaticconditionswithinthenextdecades.ClimaticconditionswillcontinuetobesuitableinsouthernFranceaswellasinmostpartsofItalyandMediterraneancoastalregionsinsouth-easternEurope[63].ItispredictedthatfutureclimatetrendswillincreasetheriskofestablishmentinnorthernEurope,e.g.partsofGermanyandthesouthernmostpartsoftheUK,duetowetterandwarmerconditions,andslightlydecreasetheriskacrosssouthernEuropebecauseofhotteranddriersummers[3,62,63].Landusechanges,particularlyurbanisation,maycontinuetoincreasethecompetitiveadvantageofAe.albopictusoverresidentmosquitoesthroughitsexploitationofartificialcontainerhabitats;furtheraidingestablishmentinnewareas[64].WintertemperaturesandmeanannualtemperaturesappeartobethemostsignificantlimitingfactorsofAe.albopictusexpansioninEurope[65]. Entomology SPECIESNAME/CLASSIFICATION:Aedes(Stegomyia)albopictus(Skuse)[66] COMMONNAME:Asiantigermosquito,Forestdaymosquito SYNONYMSANDOTHERNAMEINUSE:Stegomyiaalbopicta(sensuReinertetal.[67])  Morphologicalcharactersandsimilarspecies Aedesalbopictusadultsarerelativelysmallandshowablackandwhitepatternduetothepresenceofwhite/silverscalepatchesagainstablackbackgroundonthelegsandotherpartsofthebody.Someindigenousmosquitoesalsoshowsuchcontrastsbutthesearelessobvious(morebrownishandyellowish).Aedesalbopictuscan,however,beconfusedwithotherinvasive(Ae.aegypti,Ae.japonicus)orindigenousspecies(Ae.cretinus,restrictedtoCyprus,GreeceandTurkey),andthediagnosticcharacteristhepresenceofamediansilver-scalelineagainstablackbackgroundonthescutum(dorsalpartofthethorax).ThedifferentiationwithAe.cretinusneedsadetailedcheckofscalepatchesonthethorax. Lifehistory Diapausingtendencies Tropicalandsubtropicalpopulationsareactivethroughouttheyearwithnodiapausingphase[26].Temperatepopulationsareaffectedbyseasonaltemperatureandphotoperiodicityand,inresponsetothesefactors,canoverwinterbyproducingeggsthatundergoawinterdiapause[68].Eggs,laidduringlatesummerorearlyautumnwhendaylighthoursarereducing,enterfacultativediapause,andhatchingsuppressionoccurswhichisusuallysufficienttooutlastwinter[68].Thespecies’abilitytoinducephotoperiodiceggdiapauseallowsittooverwinterintemperateregions,whichassistsitsestablishmentinmorenorthernlatitudesinAsia,NorthAmericaandEurope.DiapausingeggsofEuropeanAe.albopictushavebeenshowntobeabletosurviveacoldspellof-10oC,whereaseggsoftropicalAe.albopictuscouldonlysurvive-2oC.Inaddition,thehatchingsuccessandcoldtoleranceofEuropeanAe.albopictuseggswereincreasedindiapausingeggswhencomparedtonon-diapausingeggs[69].AedesalbopictuspopulationsinItalyareshowingsignsofcold-acclimationasadultsandarethusremainingactivethroughoutwinter[70].SomepopulationsinNorthAmericaarelikelytobeexposedtomeantemperaturesof-5˚Candwilloverwinteriffemaleshavedepositedeggsincontainersthatarenotexposedtothesetemperaturesforprolongedperiods‒e.g.artificialcontainersinperidomesticareas[64]. Generallifehistory Thedrought-resistanteggsarelaidabovethewaterline.Larval/pupaldevelopmenttakesthreetoeightweeksandiscontinuousthroughouttheyearinEuropeansouthernmostregions(Malta[26]).Adultfemalescansurviveoverthreeweeks[70].TheyhavebeenreportedtooverwinterinRome[70]andeventolayeggsduringwintertimeinSpain[71]. Seasonalabundance Seasonalabundanceisdependentontemperatureandtheavailabilityoffoodandwaterinaparticulargeographicalarea.Highertemperaturesspeeduplarvaldevelopment,increasingthenumberofadultpopulations,theautumnaldevelopmentofimmaturesandconsequentlytheratesofeggoverwintering[68].AstudyinnorthernItalyshowedanincreasedabundanceofadultfemalesduringtheperiodMay-September,peakinginlateJuly[72].InGreece,Ae.albopictusiscontinuouslyactiveforovereightmonthsoftheyearwiththegreatestabundanceduringsummerandautumn,peakinginOctober.Ovipositiontakesplacefrommid-ApriltoDecember,withthenumbersofeggshighestfrommid-Julytotheendoftheautumn,andsignificantlyincreasedduringmildandrainyweather[73]. Voltinism(generationsperseason) Multivoltine,5-17generationsperyear[26]. Hostpreferences Aedesalbopictusisanopportunisticfeeder[74].Bloodhostsincludehumans,domesticandwildanimals,reptiles,birdsandamphibians[18].Yet,laboratorystudiesandbloodmealanalysishaveshownapreferenceforhumanbloodmeals[1].AstudyinItalyfoundapreferenceformammalsasopposedtobirdsandfoundhumanbloodmealsweremorefrequentinurbanareasthanruralsites,suggestingthathostavailabilityandabundancehasadirectimpactonthefeedingactivitiesofAe.albopictus[50]. Aquaticandterrestrialhabitats Aedesalbopictushastheabilitytobreedinnaturalandartificialhabitats,someofwhichincludetyres,barrels,rainwatergulleycatchbasinsanddrinkingtroughs[26].Naturalhabitatsconsistinphytotelms(waterbodiesheldbyterrestrialplantse.g.treeholes)androckpools[75].Theyarenotknowntobreedinbrackishorsaltwater[24].Ingeneral,albeitinEurope,theyhaveapreferenceforurbanandsuburbanhabitats[76].AedesalbopictusissaidtobesuperiorincompetingforfoodresourceswithAe.triseriatusandAe.japonicus[64]. Bitingandrestinghabits AedesalbopictusiscurrentlyconsideredaseriousbitingnuisanceforhumansinItaly[23,77],southernFrance[78]andSpainwhereitissignificantlyreducingthequalityoflifeininfestedareas[19].Adultfemalesbiteaggressively,usuallyduringthedayandpreferablyoutdoors.However,therearereportsthatAe.albopictusisbecomingpartiallyendophilic[77],andisfoundtobebitingindoors[79].DuringastudyinRome,blood-fedfemalesweremainlyfoundindoors,indicatingthatlocalmosquitopopulationscouldspendtimerestingindoorsafterabloodmeal[50].AnotherstudyonPenangIslandinMalaysiareportedobservationsofAe.albopictusfemalesdevelopingindoorswithincontainers.Suchcontainersincludedflowervases,emptypaintcansandsinks.Moststagesoflarvalpopulationswerepresentoverafive-monthperiod,suggestingthatthisspeciesmayhaveadaptedtoindoorenvironments[80].AlaboratorystudyfoundthatAe.albopictuscouldsurviveforlongperiodsindoorsbyobtainingsugarsfromluckybambooandotherornamentalplants[81].Themosquitoes’survivaltimewaslongenoughtocompleteagonotrophiccycle,andtoallowdevelopmentoftransmissiblearboviruseswithinthevector[81]. Environmentalthresholds/constraints/developmentcriteria Establishmentthresholds TheextenttowhichAe.albopictushasestablisheditselfinnewgeographiclocationsisthoughttocorrespondtovariousclimaticthresholds:ameanwintertemperatureof>0oCtopermiteggoverwintering,ameanannualtemperatureof>11oCrequiredforadultsurvivalandactivity,andatleast500mmofannualrainfall;apre-requisiteforthemaintenanceofaquatichabitats.However,rainfallneedstobesufficientduringsummermonthstomaintainsuchsites[68,82].Conversely,periodsofhighprecipitationreduceshort-termabundanceofhost-seekingfemales[72].Asummertemperatureof25‒30oCisrequiredforoptimumdevelopment[83].However,therearereportsofpopulationsestablishinginareaswithlowermeantemperatures(5‒28.5°C)andlowerrainfall(290mmannually)thanpreviouslysuspected[7,84]. Diapausingandreactivationcues Thelengthofthereproductiveseasonisregulatedbytheincreasingtemperaturesinspringandtheonsetofeggdiapauseinautumn.Thecriticalphotoperiodicthresholdvariesbetweengeographicallocations.Ingeneral,theproductionofdiapausingeggsoccursbelow13‒14hoursofdaylight,howeverinsomelocationsthisthresholdoccursat11‒12hours[68]. Hatchingofdiapausingeggsinspringisrelatedtochangesinphotoperiod(i.e.lengthofday),foodavailability,temperature,andwateravailability.Furthermore,thismosquitomaynotsurvivethroughwinterifenvironmentaltemperaturesandhumidityarenotmaintainedabovesetthresholds,orifthediapauseperiodexceedssixmonths[68]. Thereisgenerallylittleadultactivitybelow9oC,butadultsdoseekwarmermicroclimatesindoors[72].InpartsofItaly,adultactivitycontinuesthroughoutwinter[70]. Dispersalrange Flightrange(andhencedispersalonthewing)islimitedto~200m[74].Themaindispersalrouteforthismosquitoisviatransportandmovementofcontainerhabitatgoods. Epidemiologyandtransmissionofpathogens Knownvectorstatus Duringthe2006-2007chikungunyaoutbreakinItaly,thestatusofAe.albopictusasvectorofthechikungunyaviruswasclearlydemonstrated[1].Thismosquitoisalsoknowntobeabletotransmitdenguevirus[85,86]anddirofilarialworms[19,87].AllfourdenguevirusserotypeshavebeenisolatedfromAe.albopictus[88].InfectionstudiesoflAe.albopictussuggestapossiblecontributiontoZikavirusoutbreaks[89,90]. Aedesalbopictusisconsideredtobeacompetentvectorexperimentallyofatleast22otherarbovirusesincludingyellowfevervirus,RiftValleyfevervirus,Japaneseencephalitisvirus,WestNilevirusandSindbisvirus,allofwhicharerelevanttoEurope.Potosivirus,CacheValleyvirus,LaCrossevirus,Easternequineencephalitisvirus,Mayarovirus,RossRivervirus,Westernequineencephalitisvirus,Venezuelanequineencephalitisvirus,Oropouchevirus,JamestownCanyonvirus,SanAngelovirusandTrivittatusvirusareotherarbovirusesthatAe.albopictuscantransmitexperimentally[38,91]. Anumberoftheseviruseshavealsobeenisolatedfromfield-collectedAe.albopictusindifferentcountriesandlaboratorytransmissionofsuchvirusesbyAe.albopictushasbeendemonstrated[1].TheseincludeEasternequineencephalitisvirus[92,93],LaCrossevirus[94,95],Venezuelanequineencephalitisvirus[96,97],WestNilevirus[72,98,99]andJapaneseencephalitisvirus[1].UsutuvirushasbeenisolatedfromAe.albopictusinItaly,butitisunknownwhetherthemosquitocantransmitthispathogen[100].Fieldisolationandexperimentalinfectionstudiesalonedonotprovethatthismosquitospeciesisinvolvedinthetransmissionofsuchviruses,butthemosquito’sbitinghabits,increasingglobaldistributionandrecentinvolvementinachikungunyavirusoutbreakhighlightthesignificanceofAe.albopictustopublichealth. Ahighprevalenceoftheinsect-infectiveAedesflavivirushasbeendetectedinAe.albopictusinItalyandithasbeensuggestedthatitspresenceinthesemosquitoescouldinfluencethetransmissiondynamicsofotherhuman-pathogenicflaviviruses,suchasWestNilevirusandUsutuvirus[101]. NotonlydoesAe.albopictusrepresentadiseaseriskbutitcanalsocauseaconsiderableamountofnuisancebitinginareaswhereitiswell-established,reducingthequalityoflifeofindividualsaffected[102].PrevalenceofAe.albopictushasalsobeenlinkedtoareductioninchildren’soutdoorphysicalactivitytime,afactorcontributingtochildhoodobesity[103]. Chikungunya Aedesalbopictusmosquitoesareabletotransmitchikungunyaviruswithintwodaysofingestingaviraemicbloodmeal[104].Someexpertssuggestthattransovarialtransmissionisenoughtomaintainviralcyclesbutothersdisagree[23].Noevidenceoftransovarialtransmissionwasfoundduringanentomologicalinvestigationintothe2007chikungunyaoutbreakinItaly[105]buttheviruswasdetectedinfield-caughtmaleAe.albopictusfollowinganoutbreakinThailand[106]. ChikungunyawasfirstreportedinEuropein2007followingepidemicsintheIndianOcean(2005‒2007),whichcausedmillionsofcasesandsignificantmorbidityandburdenonhealthresources.ThiswasthefirstknownlocaltransmissionofchikungunyainEuropeandoccurredinEmilia-RomagnaprovinceinItaly.AninfectedtravellerreturnedhomefromIndia,spreadingthediseasetolocalisedpopulationsofAe.albopictusmosquitoes.FollowingentomologicalinvestigationsduringtheoutbreakfemalesofAe.albopictuswerefoundtobePCRpositiveandtheviruswassuccessfullyisolated[105].Theadaptationofthevirustothisnewvectorhost(inadditiontoitsprinciplevectorAe.aegypti)hasresultedinimprovedvirusreplicationandtransmissionefficiencyofthevirusbyAe.albopictus[5,107][104].AutochthonouschikungunyafevercasesoccurredinsoutheasternFrancein2010and2014[9,10].Tilstonetalconsidersthat,basedontemperature,thesouthernEuropeancountriesaremostatriskofchikungunyavirustransmission[108]. Dengue AlthoughgenerallyconsideredasecondaryvectorofdenguetoAe.aegypti,Ae.albopictushasbeenassociatedwithdenguevirustransmissionandthishasbeenacknowledgedsincethemid-nineteenthcentury[1].ItwasimplicatedasthevectorresponsibleforoutbreaksinHawaii[85]ReunionIslandandMauritius[86,109].IthasalsobeenassociatedwithdenguevirustransmissioninChina,JapanandSeychelles[88].Denguevirusistransmittedtransovariallysoemergenceofadultsfromimportedinfectedeggscouldleadtofurtherspreadofthedisease[24].Dengueviruscanalsobetransmittedvenereallyinmosquitoes[88]. AutochthonouscasesofdenguewerereportedinFranceduringSeptember2010[11]followedbyothersinCroatiaataroundthesametime[14].Furthercases,linkedtoAe.albopictus,werereportedfromFrancein2013,2014and2015[12,13,110].AlthoughmodellingpredictsthatmostofEuropeiscurrentlyunsuitablefordenguetransmission,areascombininghighhumanpopulationdensitywithsuitableday-andnight-timelandsurfacetemperaturesarestillatgreaterrisk[4,111].However,competentmosquitovectorsmustbepresentfortransmissiontooccur.Climatically,areaspredictedtobeatriskfromdengueincludenorthernItaly,partsofAustria,SloveniaandCroatia,andwestoftheAlpsinFrance[111].TheriskoftransmissiontohumansisconsideredtobehigherwherethereisapresenceofAe.aegyptithaninareaswithAe.albopictus.ThispointisexemplifiedbytheoutbreakofdengueonMadeiraassociatedwithAe.aegypti[112]. Zika AedesalbopictusisconsideredapotentialvectorofZikavirus.VectorcompetencestudiesoflocalAe.albopictusinSingaporewiththeAfricanlineageofZikavirusshowedthepotentialofthismosquitototransmitZikavirus[89].RecentstudiesusingdifferentAe.albopictuspopulationsfromtheAmericasandEuroperevealedthatthismosquitoissusceptibletoZikavirusinfection,thatthevirusisdisseminatedandcanreachthesalivaryglandsbutnotveryefficiently;Ae.albopictushasalowervectorcompetencecomparedtoAedesaegypti [113][114][115].Thespecieshasbeenfoundinfectedinwildcaughtmosquitoes[90]. Dirofilariasis AedesalbopictushasaroleinthetransmissionofDirofilariainAsia,NorthAmericaandEurope[1].Dirofilaria(filarialnematodesD.immitisandD.repens)isaparasitetransmittedprimarilybetweendogs(orothercanidswhichactasreservoirhosts)andmosquitoes,butwhichcanalsoaffecthumans.RecentevidencehasshowntransmissionoftheparasitebyItalianAe.albopictuspopulations[116-118],coupledwithanincreaseinprevalenceofhumandirofilariasisinItaly[87]. HumaninfectionsareincreasinginEuropeandalthoughitisunusualfortheparasitetodevelopintotheadultstageinhumans,atleastthreecasesofmicrofilaraemiczoonoticinfectionshavebeenreportedinEurope[77,119]. Factorsdriving/impactingontransmissioncycles Agrowthindenguecasesworldwide,increasingglobaltravelandestablishedpopulationsofAe.albopictusmayhavebeenthecauseofthedengueoutbreakinMauritiusinJune2009[86].Themovementofviraemichostscanresultinoutbreaksofchikungunyavirusinnon-endemicareas.ClimatechangecouldincreasethedistributionofAe.albopictusbeyonditscurrentboundarieswhichcouldenhancethetransmissionpotentialofchikungunyavirusanddenguevirusintemperateregions[5,77,120].Aedesalbopictusmosquitoestendtofeedonmultiplehostswhichalsoincreasestheriskofzoonoticdiseasetransmission[1].Thereturnofviraemictravellersfromdisease-epidemicareastotemperateregionshasresultedin(andwillpotentiallycontinuetoresultin)localmosquitopopulationssustainingdiseasetransmission[83].Therefore,thepresenceofAe.albopictusinEuropeandtheincreasingnumberofoverseastravellersmayincreasetheriskofdengueandchikungunyaoutbreaksinEurope[121]. Publichealth(control/interventions) Vectorsurveillance MethodsforsurveyingAe.albopictusareaddressedinthe‘ECDCGuidelinesforthesurveillanceofinvasivemosquitoesinEurope[122]. ECDCandEFSAfundEuropean-widemonitoringandmappingactivitiesforinvasivemosquitospeciesandpotentialmosquitovectors(VectorNet). Speciesspecificcontrolmethods Sourcereductionandadultcontrol ControlofAe.albopictusisbasedonthereductionoflarvaldevelopmentsites.Mosquitofoggingandlarviciding(insecticidestargetingthemosquitolarvae)weretechniquesusedduringanoutbreakofdengueinMauritiusinJune2009[86].In2006,useofinsecticidesingreenhousesthathadbeenrecentlycolonisedbyAe.albopictusintheNetherlandsmayhavecontributedtothedeclineinnumberscaughtthefollowingyear[43].Permethrin,Bacillusthuringiensisisraeliensisser.H14anddiflubenzuron(aninsectgrowthregulator)wereusedtotreatstagnantwaterafterthedetectionofAe.albopictusinSwitzerlandin2003[52].Althoughresistancetoinsecticidesisnotcurrentlyaproblem,ithasbeendetectedinapopulationinThailand[123]andmorerecentlyinpopulationsinLaReunion[124]andMalaysia[123,125].InPakistan,field-collectedAe.albopictusdisplayedmoderate-highresistancetomanyagriculturalinsecticides,includingpyrethroids[126]. Controlofthisspeciesinnewly-establishedareashasbeendifficult(e.g.USA,FranceandItaly)[1].AlthoughpreventionofinvasionwasachievedafteritsfirstintroductionintoFrancein1999,subsequentintroductions(mostlikelybyvehiclesfromItaly)haveresultedinAe.albopictusbecomingapestprobleminsouthernFranceandCorsica.AstudyinCatalonia,Spaindemonstratedtheuseofmultipleinterventionstrategies(sourcereduction,larvicideandadulticidetreatmentsandthecleaningofuncontrolledlandfills)assuccessfulincurbinganestablishedpopulationofAe.albopictus(producedamarkedreductionineggnumbers).Theauthorsconcludedthatcitizencooperationwasanessentialcomponentforsuccessfullyimplementingtheseinterventions[102]. Implementationofanintegratedcontrolstrategyagainstinvasivemosquitospeciesshouldtakeintoaccountthetargetspecies,itsecologyandthepublichealthconcern,i.e.nuisanceordiseasetransmission.Asageneralrule,anintegratedInvasiveMosquitoSpeciescontrolstrategyrequiresthecoordinatedinvolvementoflocalauthorities,privatepartners,organisedsocietyandcommunities[127]. Decreasinghuman-vectorcontactandtheuseofpublichealthmaterialhavebeenwidelyusedinendemicareasinEurope,suchasItaly.Theuseofirradiatedorgeneticallymodifiedmosquitoeswhicharestillunderdevelopmentaremethodsthatmaybeusedinthefuturetocomplementconventionalmethods.AdditionalcontrolmethodswhichmaybeappliedinthefutureincludeWolbachiainfectiontoblocktransmissionofdenguevirusandchikungunyavirus,andtheintroductionofnaturalpredators[34]. Personalprotectivemeasurestoreducetheriskofmosquitobitesincludetheuseofmosquitobednets(preferablyinsecticide-treatednets),sleepingorrestinginscreenedorair-conditionedrooms,thewearingofclothesthatcovermostofthebody,andtheuseofmosquitorepellentinaccordancewiththeinstructionsindicatedontheproductlabel. Existingpublichealthawarenessandeducationmaterials ECDCalsoprovidesinformationondengue,chikungunya,yellowfeverandZikavirus. TheECDCprovidesupdatedvectordistributionmapsandstep-by-stepwebguidelinesforthesurveillanceofinvasivemosquitoes. TheCDCprovidesadvicefortravellersonprotectionagainstmosquitoes,ticksandotherarthropods. TheNationaltravelhealthnetworkandcentreprovidesinformationonhowtoavoidinsectbites(includingmosquitobites). TheRegionalCommitteeforEuropehasendorsedathis63rdsession,September2013,a‘Regionalframeworkforsurveillanceandcontrolofinvasivemosquitovectorsandre-emergingvector-bornediseases2014–2020’[report][resolution Keyareasofuncertainty  AlthoughitisnotclearhowsignificantAe.albopictuswillbeindiseasetransmissionacrossEurope,theabilityofAe.albopictustoadapttonewenvironments,itspredictedspreadandestablishmentinEuropeanditsconfirmedinvolvementindiseasetransmissioncyclesmakesthesurveillanceandcontrolofthisspecieshugelyimportant.  References 1.           PaupyC,DelatteH,BagnyL,CorbelV,FontenilleD.Aedesalbopictus,anarbovirusvector:fromthedarknesstothelight.MicrobesInfect.2009Dec;11(14-15):1177-85. 2.           InvasiveSpeciesSpecialistGroup.GlobalInvasiveSpeciesDatabase–Aedesalbopictus2009.Availablefrom:http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=109&fr=1&sts=sss&lang=EN. 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