Attachment theory - Wikipedia

Attachment theory is a psychological, evolutionary and ethological theory concerning relationships between humans. The most important tenet is that young ... Attachmenttheory FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Psychologicalethologicaltheoryabouthumanrelationships IthasbeensuggestedthatIntergenerationalandlifetimetransferenceofattachmentbemergedintothisarticle.(Discuss)ProposedsinceJuly2022. Forinfantsandtoddlers,the"set-goal"ofthebehaviouralsystemistomaintainorachieveproximitytoattachmentfigures,usuallytheparents. Attachmenttheoryisapsychological,evolutionaryandethologicaltheoryconcerningrelationshipsbetweenhumans.Themostimportanttenetisthatyoungchildrenneedtodeveloparelationshipwithatleastoneprimarycaregiverfornormalsocialandemotionaldevelopment.ThetheorywasformulatedbypsychiatristandpsychoanalystJohnBowlby.[1] Withinattachmenttheory,infantbehaviourassociatedwithattachmentisprimarilytheseekingofproximitytoanattachmentfigureinstressfulsituations.Infantsbecomeattachedtoadultswhoaresensitiveandresponsiveinsocialinteractionswiththem,andwhoremainasconsistentcaregiversforsomemonthsduringtheperiodfromaboutsixmonthstotwoyearsofage.Duringthelatterpartofthisperiod,childrenbegintouseattachmentfigures(familiarpeople)asasecurebasetoexplorefromandreturnto.Parentalresponsesleadtothedevelopmentofpatternsofattachment;these,inturn,leadtointernalworkingmodelswhichwillguidetheindividual'sfeelings,thoughtsandexpectationsinlaterrelationships.[2]Separationanxietyorgrieffollowingthelossofanattachmentfigureisconsideredtobeanormalandadaptiveresponseforanattachedinfant.Thesebehavioursmayhaveevolvedbecausetheyincreasetheprobabilityofsurvivalofthechild.[3] ResearchbydevelopmentalpsychologistMaryAinsworthinthe1960sand70sunderpinnedthebasicconcepts,introducedtheconceptofthe"securebase"anddevelopedatheoryofanumberofattachmentpatternsininfants:secureattachment,avoidantattachmentandanxiousattachment.[4]Afourthpattern,disorganizedattachment,wasidentifiedlater.Inthe1980s,thetheorywasextendedtoattachmentsinadults.[5]Otherinteractionsmaybeconstruedasincludingcomponentsofattachmentbehaviour;theseincludepeerrelationshipsatallages,romanticandsexualattractionandresponsestothecareneedsofinfantsorthesickandelderly. Toformulateacomprehensivetheoryofthenatureofearlyattachments,Bowlbyexploredarangeoffields,includingevolutionarybiology,objectrelationstheory(aschoolofpsychoanalysis),controlsystemstheory,andthefieldsofethologyandcognitivepsychology.[6]Afterpreliminarypapersfrom1958onwards,BowlbypublishedthefulltheoryinthetrilogyAttachmentandLoss(1969–82).Intheearlydaysofthetheory,academicpsychologistscriticizedBowlby,andthepsychoanalyticcommunityostracizedhimforhisdeparturefrompsychoanalyticaldoctrines;[7]however,attachmenttheoryhassincebecomethedominantapproachtounderstandingearlysocialdevelopment,andhasgivenrisetoagreatsurgeofempiricalresearchintotheformationofchildren'scloserelationships.[8]Latercriticismsofattachmenttheoryrelatetotemperament,thecomplexityofsocialrelationships,andthelimitationsofdiscretepatternsforclassifications.Attachmenttheoryhasbeensignificantlymodifiedasaresultofempiricalresearch,buttheconceptshavebecomegenerallyaccepted.[7]Attachmenttheoryhasformedthebasisofnewtherapiesandinformedexistingones,anditsconceptshavebeenusedintheformulationofsocialandchildcarepoliciestosupporttheearlyattachmentrelationshipsofchildren.[9] Contents 1Attachment 1.1Behaviours 1.2Tenets 1.3Culturaldifferences 2Attachmentpatterns 2.1Secureattachment 2.2Anxious-ambivalentattachment 2.3Anxious-avoidantanddismissive-avoidantattachment 2.4Disorganized/disorientedattachment 2.5Categorizationdifferencesacrosscultures 2.6Laterpatternsandthedynamic-maturationalmodel 2.7Significanceofpatterns 3Changesinattachmentduringchildhoodandadolescence 4Attachmentstylesinadults 4.1Securelyattached 4.2Anxious-preoccupied 4.3Dismissive-avoidant 4.4Fearful-avoidant 4.5Relationshipsinvolvingpeoplewithdifferentattachmentstyles 4.6Assessingandmeasuringattachment 4.7Associationsofadultattachmentwithothertraits 5History 5.1Maternaldeprivation 5.2Formulationofthetheory 5.2.1Ethology 5.2.2Psychoanalysis 5.2.3Internalworkingmodel 5.2.4Cybernetics 5.2.5Cognitivedevelopment 5.2.6Behaviourism 5.2.7Developmentssince1970s 6Neurobiologyofattachment 7Crime 7.1History 7.2Agedistributionofcrime 7.3Developmentalperspectives 7.4Life-courseperspectives 7.5Typesofoffenses 8Practicalapplications 8.1Childcarepolicies 8.2Clinicalpracticeinchildren 8.2.1Preventionandtreatment 8.2.2Reactiveattachmentdisorderandattachmentdisorder 8.3Clinicalpracticeinadultsandfamilies 9Criticism 10Seealso 11Notes 12References 13Furtherreading Attachment[edit] Althoughitisusualforthemothertobetheprimaryattachmentfigure,infantswillformattachmentstoanycarerwhoissensitiveandresponsiveinsocialinteractionswiththem. Withinattachmenttheory,attachmentmeansanaffectionalbondortiebetweenanindividualandanattachmentfigure(usuallyacaregiver).Suchbondsmaybereciprocalbetweentwoadults,butbetweenachildandacaregiver,thesebondsarebasedonthechild'sneedforsafety,security,andprotection—whichismostimportantininfancyandchildhood.Attachmenttheoryisnotanexhaustivedescriptionofhumanrelationships,norisitsynonymouswithloveandaffection,althoughthesemayindicatethatbondsexist.Inchild-to-adultrelationships,thechild'stieiscalledthe"attachment"andthecaregiver'sreciprocalequivalentisreferredtoasthe"care-givingbond".[10]Thetheoryproposesthatchildrenattachtocarersinstinctively,[11]forthepurposeofsurvivaland,ultimately,geneticreplication.[10]Thebiologicalaimissurvivalandthepsychologicalaimissecurity.[8]Therelationshipthatachildhaswiththeirattachmentfigureisespeciallyimportantinthreateningsituations.Havingaccesstoasecurefiguredecreasesfearinchildrenwhentheyarepresentedwiththreateningsituations.Notonlyishavingadecreasedleveloffearimportantforgeneralmentalstability,butitalsoimplicateshowchildrenmightreacttothreateningsituations.Thepresenceofasupportiveattachmentfigureisespeciallyimportantinachild'sdevelopmentalyears.[12] Infantswillformattachmentstoanyconsistentcaregiverwhoissensitiveandresponsiveinsocialinteractionswiththem.Thequalityofsocialengagementismoreinfluentialthantheamountoftimespent.Thebiologicalmotheristheusualprincipalattachmentfigure,buttherolecanbetakenbyanyonewhoconsistentlybehavesina"mothering"wayoveraperiodoftime.Withinattachmenttheory,thismeansasetofbehavioursthatinvolvesengaginginlivelysocialinteractionwiththeinfantandrespondingreadilytosignalsandapproaches.[13]Nothinginthetheorysuggeststhatfathersarenotequallylikelytobecomeprincipalattachmentfiguresiftheyprovidemostofthechildcareandrelatedsocialinteraction.[14][15]Asecureattachmentwithtoafatherwhoisa"secondaryattachmentfigure"mayalsoacounterthepossiblenegativeaffectsofanunsatisfactoryattachmenttoamotherwhoistheprimaryattachmentfigure.[16] Someinfantsdirectattachmentbehaviour(proximityseeking)towardsmorethanoneattachmentfigurealmostassoonastheystarttoshowdiscriminationbetweencaregivers;mostcometodosoduringtheirsecondyear.Thesefiguresarearrangedhierarchically,withtheprincipalattachmentfigureatthetop.[17]Theset-goaloftheattachmentbehaviouralsystemistomaintainabondwithanaccessibleandavailableattachmentfigure.[18]"Alarm"isthetermusedforactivationoftheattachmentbehaviouralsystemcausedbyfearofdanger."Anxiety"istheanticipationorfearofbeingcutofffromtheattachmentfigure.Ifthefigureisunavailableorunresponsive,separationdistressoccurs.[19]Ininfants,physicalseparationcancauseanxietyandanger,followedbysadnessanddespair.Byagethreeorfour,physicalseparationisnolongersuchathreattothechild'sbondwiththeattachmentfigure.Threatstosecurityinolderchildrenandadultsarisefromprolongedabsence,breakdownsincommunication,emotionalunavailabilityorsignsofrejectionorabandonment.[18] Behaviours[edit] Insecureattachmentpatternscancompromiseexplorationandtheachievementofself-confidence.Asecurelyattachedbabyisfreetoconcentrateontheirenvironment. Theattachmentbehaviouralsystemservestoachieveormaintainproximitytotheattachmentfigure.[3] Pre-attachmentbehavioursoccurinthefirstsixmonthsoflife.Duringthefirstphase(thefirsteightweeks),infantssmile,babble,andcrytoattracttheattentionofpotentialcaregivers.Althoughinfantsofthisagelearntodiscriminatebetweencaregivers,thesebehavioursaredirectedatanyoneinthevicinity. Duringthesecondphase(twotosixmonths),theinfantdiscriminatesbetweenfamiliarandunfamiliaradults,becomingmoreresponsivetowardthecaregiver;followingandclingingareaddedtotherangeofbehaviours.Theinfant'sbehaviourtowardthecaregiverbecomesorganizedonagoal-directedbasistoachievetheconditionsthatmakeitfeelsecure.[20] Bytheendofthefirstyear,theinfantisabletodisplayarangeofattachmentbehavioursdesignedtomaintainproximity.Thesemanifestasprotestingthecaregiver'sdeparture,greetingthecaregiver'sreturn,clingingwhenfrightened,andfollowingwhenable.[21] Withthedevelopmentoflocomotion,theinfantbeginstousethecaregiverorcaregiversasa"safebase"fromwhichtoexplore.[20][22]: 71 Infantexplorationisgreaterwhenthecaregiverispresentbecausetheinfant'sattachmentsystemisrelaxedanditisfreetoexplore.Ifthecaregiverisinaccessibleorunresponsive,attachmentbehaviourismorestronglyexhibited.[23]Anxiety,fear,illness,andfatiguewillcauseachildtoincreaseattachmentbehaviours.[24] Afterthesecondyear,asthechildbeginstoseethecaregiverasanindependentperson,amorecomplexandgoal-correctedpartnershipisformed.[25]Childrenbegintonoticeothers'goalsandfeelingsandplantheiractionsaccordingly. Tenets[edit] Modernattachmenttheoryisbasedonthreeprinciples:[26] Bondingisanintrinsichumanneed. Regulationofemotionandfeartoenhancevitality. Promotingadaptivenessandgrowth. Commonattachmentbehavioursandemotions,displayedinmostsocialprimatesincludinghumans,areadaptive.Thelong-termevolutionofthesespecieshasinvolvedselectionforsocialbehavioursthatmakeindividualorgroupsurvivalmorelikely.Thecommonlyobservedattachmentbehaviouroftoddlersstayingnearfamiliarpeoplewouldhavehadsafetyadvantagesintheenvironmentofearlyadaptationandhassimilaradvantagestoday.Bowlbysawtheenvironmentofearlyadaptationassimilartocurrenthunter-gatherersocieties.[27]Thereisasurvivaladvantageinthecapacitytosensepossiblydangerousconditionssuchasunfamiliarity,beingalone,orrapidapproach.AccordingtoBowlby,proximity-seekingtotheattachmentfigureinthefaceofthreatisthe"set-goal"oftheattachmentbehaviouralsystem.[28] Bowlby'soriginalaccountofasensitivityperiodduringwhichattachmentscanformofbetweensixmonthsandtwotothreeyearshasbeenmodifiedbylaterresearchers.Theseresearchershaveshownthereisindeedasensitiveperiodduringwhichattachmentswillformifpossible,butthetimeframeisbroaderandtheeffectlessfixedandirreversiblethanfirstproposed.[29] Withfurtherresearch,authorsdiscussingattachmenttheoryhavecometoappreciatesocialdevelopmentisaffectedbylateraswellasearlierrelationships.Earlystepsinattachmenttakeplacemosteasilyiftheinfanthasonecaregiver,ortheoccasionalcareofasmallnumberofotherpeople.AccordingtoBowlby,almostfromthebeginning,manychildrenhavemorethanonefiguretowardwhomtheydirectattachmentbehaviour.Thesefiguresarenottreatedalike;thereisastrongbiasforachildtodirectattachmentbehaviourmainlytowardoneparticularperson.Bowlbyusedtheterm"monotropy"todescribethisbias.[30]Researchersandtheoristshaveabandonedthisconceptinsofarasitmaybetakentomeantherelationshipwiththespecialfigurediffersqualitativelyfromthatofotherfigures.Rather,currentthinkingpostulatesdefinitehierarchiesofrelationships.[7][31] Earlyexperienceswithcaregiversgraduallygiverisetoasystemofthoughts,memories,beliefs,expectations,emotions,andbehavioursabouttheselfandothers.Thissystem,calledthe"internalworkingmodelofsocialrelationships",continuestodevelopwithtimeandexperience.[32] Internalmodelsregulate,interpret,andpredictattachment-relatedbehaviourintheselfandtheattachmentfigure.Astheydevelopinlinewithenvironmentalanddevelopmentalchanges,theyincorporatethecapacitytoreflectandcommunicateaboutpastandfutureattachmentrelationships.[2]Theyenablethechildtohandlenewtypesofsocialinteractions;knowing,forexample,aninfantshouldbetreateddifferentlyfromanolderchild,orthatinteractionswithteachersandparentssharecharacteristics.Eveninteractionwithcoachessharesimilarcharacteristics,asathleteswhosecureattachmentrelationshipswithnotonlytheirparentsbuttheircoacheswillplayaroleinthegrowthofathletesintheirprospectivesport.[33]Thisinternalworkingmodelcontinuestodevelopthroughadulthood,helpingcopewithfriendships,marriage,andparenthood,allofwhichinvolvedifferentbehavioursandfeelings.[32][34] Thedevelopmentofattachmentisatransactionalprocess.Specificattachmentbehavioursbeginwithpredictable,apparentlyinnate,behavioursininfancy.Theychangewithageinwaysdeterminedpartlybyexperiencesandpartlybysituationalfactors.[35]Asattachmentbehaviourschangewithage,theydosoinwaysshapedbyrelationships.Achild'sbehaviourwhenreunitedwithacaregiverisdeterminednotonlybyhowthecaregiverhastreatedthechildbefore,butonthehistoryofeffectsthechildhashadonthecaregiver.[36][37] Culturaldifferences[edit] InWesternculturechild-rearing,thereisafocusonsingleattachmenttoprimarilythemother.Thisdyadicmodelisnottheonlystrategyofattachmentproducingasecureandemotionallyadeptchild.Havingasingle,dependablyresponsiveandsensitivecaregiver(namelythemother)doesnotguaranteetheultimatesuccessofthechild.ResultsfromIsraeli,DutchandeastAfricanstudiesshowchildrenwithmultiplecaregiversgrowupnotonlyfeelingsecure,butdeveloped"moreenhancedcapacitiestoviewtheworldfrommultipleperspectives."[38]Thisevidencecanbemorereadilyfoundinhunter-gatherercommunities,likethosethatexistinruralTanzania.[39] Inhunter-gatherercommunities,inthepastandpresent,mothersaretheprimarycaregiversbutsharethematernalresponsibilityofensuringthechild'ssurvivalwithavarietyofdifferentallomothers.Sowhilethemotherisimportant,sheisnottheonlyopportunityforrelationalattachmentachildcanmake.Severalgroupmembers(withorwithoutbloodrelation)contributetothetaskofbringingupachild,sharingtheparentingroleandthereforecanbesourcesofmultipleattachment.Thereisevidenceofthiscommunalparentingthroughouthistorythat"wouldhavesignificantimplicationsfortheevolutionofmultipleattachment."[40] In"non-metropolis"India(where"dualincomenuclearfamilies"aremorethenormanddyadicmotherrelationshipis),whereafamilynormallyconsistsof3generations(andiflucky4:great-grandparents,grandparents,parents,andchildorchildren),thechildorchildrenbydefaulthavefourtosixcaregiversfromwhomtoselecttheir"attachmentfigure".Andachild's"unclesandaunts"(father'ssiblingsandtheirspouses)alsocontributetothechild'spsycho-socialenrichment.[41] Althoughithasbeendebatedforyears,andtherearedifferencesacrosscultures,researchhasshownthatthethreebasicaspectsofattachmenttheoryare,tosomedegree,universal.[42]StudiesinIsraelandJapanresultedinfindingswhichdivergefromanumberofstudiescompletedinWesternEuropeandtheUnitedStates.Theprevailinghypothesesare:1)thatsecureattachmentisthemostdesirablestate,andthemostprevalent;2)maternalsensitivityinfluencesinfantattachmentpatterns;and3)specificinfantattachmentspredictlatersocialandcognitivecompetence.[42] Attachmentpatterns[edit] "Thestrengthofachild'sattachmentbehaviourinagivencircumstancedoesnotindicatethe'strength'oftheattachmentbond.Someinsecurechildrenwillroutinelydisplayverypronouncedattachmentbehaviours,whilemanysecurechildrenfindthatthereisnogreatneedtoengageineitherintenseorfrequentshowsofattachmentbehaviour."[43]"Individualswithdifferentattachmentstyleshavedifferentbeliefsaboutromanticloveperiod,availability,trustcapabilityoflovepartnersandlovereadiness."[44] Secureattachment[edit] Mainarticle:Secureattachment Atoddlerwhoissecurelyattachedtohisorherparent(orotherfamiliarcaregiver)willexplorefreelywhilethecaregiverispresent,typicallyengageswithstrangers,isoftenvisiblyupsetwhenthecaregiverdeparts,andisgenerallyhappytoseethecaregiverreturn.Theextentofexplorationandofdistressareaffected,however,bythechild'stemperamentalmake-upandbysituationalfactorsaswellasbyattachmentstatus.Achild'sattachmentislargelyinfluencedbytheirprimarycaregiver'ssensitivitytotheirneeds.Parentswhoconsistently(oralmostalways)respondtotheirchild'sneedswillcreatesecurelyattachedchildren.Suchchildrenarecertainthattheirparentswillberesponsivetotheirneedsandcommunications.[45] InthetraditionalAinsworthetal.(1978)codingoftheStrangeSituation,secureinfantsaredenotedas"GroupB"infantsandtheyarefurthersubclassifiedasB1,B2,B3,andB4.[46]Althoughthesesubgroupingsrefertodifferentstylisticresponsestothecomingsandgoingsofthecaregiver,theywerenotgivenspecificlabelsbyAinsworthandcolleagues,althoughtheirdescriptivebehavioursledothers(includingstudentsofAinsworth)todevisearelatively"loose"terminologyforthesesubgroups.B1'shavebeenreferredtoas"secure-reserved",B2'sas"secure-inhibited",B3'sas"secure-balanced",andB4'sas"secure-reactive".However,inacademicpublicationstheclassificationofinfants(ifsubgroupsaredenoted)istypicallysimply"B1"or"B2",althoughmoretheoreticalandreview-orientedpaperssurroundingattachmenttheorymayusetheaboveterminology.Secureattachmentisthemostcommontypeofattachmentrelationshipseenthroughoutsocieties.[47] Securelyattachedchildrenarebestabletoexplorewhentheyhavetheknowledgeofasecurebase(theircaregiver)toreturntointimesofneed.Whenassistanceisgiven,thisbolstersthesenseofsecurityandalso,assumingtheparent'sassistanceishelpful,educatesthechildonhowtocopewiththesameprobleminthefuture.Therefore,secureattachmentcanbeseenasthemostadaptiveattachmentstyle.Accordingtosomepsychologicalresearchers,achildbecomessecurelyattachedwhentheparentisavailableandabletomeettheneedsofthechildinaresponsiveandappropriatemanner.Atinfancyandearlychildhood,ifparentsarecaringandattentivetowardstheirchildren,thosechildrenwillbemorepronetosecureattachment.[48] Anxious-ambivalentattachment[edit] Anxious-ambivalentattachmentisalsomisnamedas"resistantattachment".[47]Ingeneral,achildwithananxious-ambivalentpatternofattachmentwilltypicallyexplorelittle(intheStrangeSituation)andisoftenwaryofstrangers,evenwhentheparentispresent.Whenthecaregiverdeparts,thechildisoftenhighlydistressedshowingbehaviourssuchascryingorscreaming.Thechildisgenerallyambivalentwhenthecaregiverreturns.[46]Theanxious-ambivalentstrategyisaresponsetounpredictablyresponsivecaregiving,andthedisplaysofanger(ambivalentresistant,C1)orhelplessness(ambivalentpassive,C2)towardsthecaregiveronreunioncanberegardedasaconditionalstrategyformaintainingtheavailabilityofthecaregiverbypreemptivelytakingcontroloftheinteraction.[49][50] TheC1(ambivalentresistant)subtypeiscodedwhen"resistantbehaviorisparticularlyconspicuous.Themixtureofseekingandyetresistingcontactandinteractionhasanunmistakablyangryqualityandindeedanangrytonemaycharacterizebehaviorinthepreseparationepisodes".[46] RegardingtheC2(ambivalentpassive)subtype,Ainsworthetal.wrote:PerhapsthemostconspicuouscharacteristicofC2infantsistheirpassivity.TheirexploratorybehaviorislimitedthroughouttheSSandtheirinteractivebehaviorsarerelativelylackinginactiveinitiation.Nevertheless,inthereunionepisodestheyobviouslywantproximitytoandcontactwiththeirmothers,eventhoughtheytendtousesignallingratherthanactiveapproach,andprotestagainstbeingputdownratherthanactivelyresistingrelease ...IngeneraltheC2babyisnotasconspicuouslyangryastheC1baby.[46]ResearchdonebyMcCarthyandTaylor(1999)foundthatchildrenwithabusivechildhoodexperiencesweremorelikelytodevelopambivalentattachments.Thestudyalsofoundthatchildrenwithambivalentattachmentsweremorelikelytoexperiencedifficultiesinmaintainingintimaterelationshipsasadults.[51] Anxious-avoidantanddismissive-avoidantattachment[edit] Aninfantwithananxious-avoidantpatternofattachmentwillavoidorignorethecaregiver—showinglittleemotionwhenthecaregiverdepartsorreturns.Theinfantwillnotexploreverymuchregardlessofwhoisthere.Infantsclassifiedasanxious-avoidant(A)representedapuzzleintheearly1970s.Theydidnotexhibitdistressonseparation,andeitherignoredthecaregiverontheirreturn(A1subtype)orshowedsometendencytoapproachtogetherwithsometendencytoignoreorturnawayfromthecaregiver(A2subtype).AinsworthandBelltheorizedthattheapparentlyunruffledbehaviouroftheavoidantinfantswasinfactamaskfordistress,ahypothesislaterevidencedthroughstudiesoftheheart-rateofavoidantinfants.[52][53] Infantsaredepictedasanxious-avoidantwhenthereis:... conspicuousavoidanceofthemotherinthereunionepisodeswhichislikelytoconsistofignoringheraltogether,althoughtheremaybesomepointedlookingaway,turningaway,ormovingaway ...Ifthereisagreetingwhenthemotherenters,ittendstobeamerelookorasmile ...Eitherthebabydoesnotapproachhismotheruponreunion,ortheyapproachin"abortive"fashionswiththebabygoingpastthemother,orittendstoonlyoccuraftermuchcoaxing ...Ifpickedup,thebabyshowslittleornocontact-maintainingbehavior;hetendsnottocuddlein;helooksawayandhemaysquirmtogetdown.[46] Ainsworth'snarrativerecordsshowedthatinfantsavoidedthecaregiverinthestressfulStrangeSituationProcedurewhentheyhadahistoryofexperiencingrebuffofattachmentbehaviour.Theinfant'sneedswerefrequentlynotmetandtheinfanthadcometobelievethatcommunicationofemotionalneedshadnoinfluenceonthecaregiver. Ainsworth'sstudentMaryMaintheorizedthatavoidantbehaviourintheStrangeSituationProcedureshouldberegardedas"aconditionalstrategy,whichparadoxicallypermitswhateverproximityispossibleunderconditionsofmaternalrejection"byde-emphasisingattachmentneeds.[54] Mainproposedthatavoidancehastwofunctionsforaninfantwhosecaregiverisconsistentlyunresponsivetotheirneeds.Firstly,avoidantbehaviourallowstheinfanttomaintainaconditionalproximitywiththecaregiver:closeenoughtomaintainprotection,butdistantenoughtoavoidrebuff.Secondly,thecognitiveprocessesorganisingavoidantbehaviourcouldhelpdirectattentionawayfromtheunfulfilleddesireforclosenesswiththecaregiver—avoidingasituationinwhichthechildisoverwhelmedwithemotion("disorganizeddistress"),andthereforeunabletomaintaincontrolofthemselvesandachieveevenconditionalproximity.[55] Disorganized/disorientedattachment[edit] Beginningin1983,CrittendenofferedA/Candotherneworganizedclassifications(seebelow).DrawingonrecordsofbehavioursdiscrepantwiththeA,BandCclassifications,afourthclassificationwasaddedbyAinsworth'scolleagueMaryMain.[56]IntheStrangeSituation,theattachmentsystemisexpectedtobeactivatedbythedepartureandreturnofthecaregiver.Ifthebehaviouroftheinfantdoesnotappeartotheobservertobecoordinatedinasmoothwayacrossepisodestoachieveeitherproximityorsomerelativeproximitywiththecaregiver,thenitisconsidered'disorganized'asitindicatesadisruptionorfloodingoftheattachmentsystem(e.g.byfear).InfantbehavioursintheStrangeSituationProtocolcodedasdisorganized/disorientedincludeovertdisplaysoffear;contradictorybehavioursoraffectsoccurringsimultaneouslyorsequentially;stereotypic,asymmetric,misdirectedorjerkymovements;orfreezingandapparentdissociation.Lyons-Ruthhasurged,however,thatitshouldbemorewidely"recognizedthat52%ofdisorganizedinfantscontinuetoapproachthecaregiver,seekcomfort,andceasetheirdistresswithoutclearambivalentoravoidantbehavior".[57] ThebenefitofthiscategorywashintedatearlierinAinsworth'sownexperiencefindingdifficultiesinfittingallinfantbehaviourintothethreeclassificationsusedinherBaltimorestudy.Ainsworthandcolleaguessometimesobserved"tensemovementssuchashunchingtheshoulders,puttingthehandsbehindtheneckandtenselycockingthehead,andsoon.Itwasourclearimpressionthatsuchtensionmovementssignifiedstress,bothbecausetheytendedtooccurchieflyintheseparationepisodesandbecausetheytendedtobeprodromaltocrying.Indeed,ourhypothesisisthattheyoccurwhenachildisattemptingtocontrolcrying,fortheytendtovanishifandwhencryingbreaksthrough."[58]SuchobservationsalsoappearedinthedoctoralthesesofAinsworth'sstudents.Crittenden,forexample,notedthatoneabusedinfantinherdoctoralsamplewasclassedassecure(B)byherundergraduatecodersbecauseherstrangesituationbehaviourwas"withouteitheravoidanceorambivalence,shedidshowstress-relatedstereotypicheadcockingthroughoutthestrangesituation.Thispervasivebehavior,however,wastheonlycluetotheextentofherstress".[59] Thereisrapidlygrowinginterestindisorganizedattachmentfromcliniciansandpolicy-makersaswellasresearchers.[60]However,thedisorganized/disorientedattachment(D)classificationhasbeencriticizedbysomeforbeingtooencompassing,includingAinsworthherself.[61]In1990,Ainsworthputinprintherblessingforthenew'D'classification,thoughsheurgedthattheadditionberegardedas"open-ended,inthesensethatsubcategoriesmaybedistinguished",assheworriedthattoomanydifferentformsofbehaviourmightbetreatedasiftheywerethesamething.[62]Indeed,theDclassificationputstogetherinfantswhouseasomewhatdisruptedsecure(B)strategywiththosewhoseemhopelessandshowlittleattachmentbehaviour;italsoputstogetherinfantswhoruntohidewhentheyseetheircaregiverinthesameclassificationasthosewhoshowanavoidant(A)strategyonthefirstreunionandthenanambivalent-resistant(C)strategyonthesecondreunion.Perhapsrespondingtosuchconcerns,GeorgeandSolomonhavedividedamongindicesofdisorganized/disorientedattachment(D)intheStrangeSituation,treatingsomeofthebehavioursasa'strategyofdesperation'andothersasevidencethattheattachmentsystemhasbeenflooded(e.g.byfear,oranger).[63] CrittendenalsoarguesthatsomebehaviourclassifiedasDisorganized/disorientedcanberegardedasmore'emergency'versionsoftheavoidantand/orambivalent/resistantstrategies,andfunctiontomaintaintheprotectiveavailabilityofthecaregivertosomedegree.Sroufeetal.haveagreedthat"evendisorganizedattachmentbehaviour(simultaneousapproach-avoidance;freezing,etc.)enablesadegreeofproximityinthefaceofafrighteningorunfathomableparent".[64]However,"thepresumptionthatmanyindicesof'disorganization'areaspectsoforganizedpatternsdoesnotprecludeacceptanceofthenotionofdisorganization,especiallyincaseswherethecomplexityanddangerousnessofthethreatarebeyondchildren'scapacityforresponse."[65]Forexample,"Childrenplacedincare,especiallymorethanonce,oftenhaveintrusions.InvideosoftheStrangeSituationProcedure,theytendtooccurwhenarejected/neglectedchildapproachesthestrangerinanintrusionofdesireforcomfort,thenlosesmuscularcontrolandfallstothefloor,overwhelmedbytheintrudingfearoftheunknown,potentiallydangerous,strangeperson."[66] MainandHesse[67]foundmostofthemothersofthesechildrenhadsufferedmajorlossesorothertraumashortlybeforeorafterthebirthoftheinfantandhadreactedbybecomingseverelydepressed.[68]Infact,fifty-sixpercentofmotherswhohadlostaparentbydeathbeforetheycompletedhighschoolhadchildrenwithdisorganizedattachments.[67]Subsequentstudies,whilstemphasisingthepotentialimportanceofunresolvedloss,havequalifiedthesefindings.[69]Forexample,SolomonandGeorgefoundunresolvedlossinthemothertendedtobeassociatedwithdisorganizedattachmentintheirinfantprimarilywhentheyhadalsoexperiencedanunresolvedtraumaintheirlifepriortotheloss.[70] Categorizationdifferencesacrosscultures[edit] AcrossdifferentculturesdeviationsfromtheStrangeSituationProtocolhavebeenobserved.AJapanesestudyin1986(Takahashi)studied60Japanesemother-infantpairsandcomparedthemwithAinsworth'sdistributionalpattern.Althoughtherangesforsecurelyattachedandinsecurelyattachedhadnosignificantdifferencesinproportions,theJapaneseinsecuregroupconsistedofonlyresistantchildren,withnochildrencategorizedasavoidant.ThismaybebecausetheJapanesechildrearingphilosophystressedclosemotherinfantbondsmoresothaninWesterncultures.InNorthernGermany,Grossmannetal.(Grossmann,Huber,&Wartner,1981;Grossmann,Spangler,Suess,&Unzner,1985)replicatedtheAinsworthStrangeSituationwith46motherinfantpairsandfoundadifferentdistributionofattachmentclassificationswithahighnumberofavoidantinfants:52%avoidant,34%secure,and13%resistant(Grossmannetal.,1985).AnotherstudyinIsraelfoundtherewasahighfrequencyofanambivalentpattern,whichaccordingtoGrossmanetal.(1985)couldbeattributedtoagreaterparentalpushtowardchildren'sindependence. Laterpatternsandthedynamic-maturationalmodel[edit] Techniqueshavebeendevelopedtoallowverbalascertainmentofthechild'sstateofmindwithrespecttoattachment.Anexampleisthe"stemstory",inwhichachildisgiventhebeginningofastorythatraisesattachmentissuesandaskedtocompleteit.Forolderchildren,adolescentsandadults,semi-structuredinterviewsareusedinwhichthemannerofrelayingcontentmaybeassignificantasthecontentitself.[8]However,therearenosubstantiallyvalidatedmeasuresofattachmentformiddlechildhoodorearlyadolescence(approximately7to13yearsofage).[71] Somestudiesofolderchildrenhaveidentifiedfurtherattachmentclassifications.MainandCassidyobservedthatdisorganizedbehaviourininfancycandevelopintoachildusingcaregiving-controllingorpunitivebehaviourinordertomanageahelplessordangerouslyunpredictablecaregiver.Inthesecases,thechild'sbehaviourisorganized,butthebehaviouristreatedbyresearchersasaformof'disorganization'(D)sincethehierarchyinthefamilyisnolongerorganizedaccordingtoparentingauthority.[72] AmericanpsychologistPatriciaMcKinseyCrittendenhaselaboratedclassificationsoffurtherformsofavoidantandambivalentattachmentbehaviour,asseeninherdynamic-maturationalmodelofattachmentandadaptation(DMM).TheseincludethecaregivingandpunitivebehavioursalsoidentifiedbyMainandCassidy(termedA3andC3respectively),butalsootherpatternssuchascompulsivecompliancewiththewishesofathreateningparent(A4).[73] Crittenden'sideasdevelopedfromBowlby'sproposalthat"givencertainadversecircumstancesduringchildhood,theselectiveexclusionofinformationofcertainsortsmaybeadaptive.Yet,whenduringadolescenceandadulthoodthesituationchanges,thepersistentexclusionofthesameformsofinformationmaybecomemaladaptive".[74] Crittendenproposedthatthebasiccomponentsofhumanexperienceofdangeraretwokindsofinformation:[75] 'Affectiveinformation'–theemotionsprovokedbythepotentialfordanger,suchasangerorfear.Crittendentermsthis"affectiveinformation".Inchildhoodthisinformationwouldincludeemotionsprovokedbytheunexplainedabsenceofanattachmentfigure.Whereaninfantisfacedwithinsensitiveorrejectingparenting,onestrategyformaintainingtheavailabilityoftheirattachmentfigureistotrytoexcludefromconsciousnessorfromexpressedbehaviouranyemotionalinformationthatmightresultinrejection.[76] Causalorothersequentiallyorderedknowledgeaboutthepotentialforsafetyordanger.Inchildhoodthiswouldincludeknowledgeregardingthebehavioursthatindicateanattachmentfigure'savailabilityasasecurehaven.Ifknowledgeregardingthebehavioursthatindicateanattachmentfigure'savailabilityasasecurehavenissubjecttosegregation,thentheinfantcantrytokeeptheattentionoftheircaregiverthroughclingyoraggressivebehaviour,oralternatingcombinationsofthetwo.Suchbehaviourmayincreasetheavailabilityofanattachmentfigurewhootherwisedisplaysinconsistentormisleadingresponsestotheinfant'sattachmentbehaviours,suggestingtheunreliabilityofprotectionandsafety.[77] Crittendenproposesthatbothkindsofinformationcanbesplitofffromconsciousnessorbehaviouralexpressionasa'strategy'tomaintaintheavailabilityofanattachmentfigure(SeesectionaboveonDisorganized/disorientedattachmentfordistinctionof"Types"):"TypeAstrategieswerehypothesizedtobebasedonreducingperceptionofthreattoreducethedispositiontorespond.TypeCwashypothesizedtobebasedonheighteningperceptionofthreattoincreasethedispositiontorespond."[78]TypeAstrategiessplitoffemotionalinformationaboutfeelingthreatenedandtypeCstrategiessplitofftemporally-sequencedknowledgeabouthowandwhytheattachmentfigureisavailable.Bycontrast,typeBstrategieseffectivelyutilizebothkindsofinformationwithoutmuchdistortion.[79]Forexample:atoddlermayhavecometodependuponatypeCstrategyoftantrumsinworkingtomaintaintheavailabilityofanattachmentfigurewhoseinconsistentavailabilityhasledthechildtodistrustordistortcausalinformationabouttheirapparentbehaviour.Thismayleadtheirattachmentfiguretogetaclearergraspontheirneedsandtheappropriateresponsetotheirattachmentbehaviours.Experiencingmorereliableandpredictableinformationabouttheavailabilityoftheirattachmentfigure,thetoddlerthennolongerneedstousecoercivebehaviourswiththegoalofmaintainingtheircaregiver'savailabilityandcandevelopasecureattachmenttotheircaregiversincetheytrustthattheirneedsandcommunicationswillbeheeded.[citationneeded] Significanceofpatterns[edit] Researchbasedondatafromlongitudinalstudies,suchastheNationalInstituteofChildHealthandHumanDevelopmentStudyofEarlyChildCareandtheMinnesotaStudyofRiskandAdaptionfromBirthtoAdulthood,andfromcross-sectionalstudies,consistentlyshowsassociationsbetweenearlyattachmentclassificationsandpeerrelationshipsastobothquantityandquality.Lyons-Ruth,forexample,foundthat"foreachadditionalwithdrawingbehaviordisplayedbymothersinrelationtotheirinfant'sattachmentcuesintheStrangeSituationProcedure,thelikelihoodofclinicalreferralbyserviceproviderswasincreasedby50%."[80] Thereisanextensivebodyofresearchdemonstratingasignificantassociationbetweenattachmentorganizationsandchildren'sfunctioningacrossmultipledomains.[81]Earlyinsecureattachmentdoesnotnecessarilypredictdifficulties,butitisaliabilityforthechild,particularlyifsimilarparentalbehaviourscontinuethroughoutchildhood.[82]Comparedtothatofsecurelyattachedchildren,theadjustmentofinsecurechildreninmanyspheresoflifeisnotassoundlybased,puttingtheirfuturerelationshipsinjeopardy.Althoughthelinkisnotfullyestablishedbyresearchandthereareotherinfluencesbesidesattachment,secureinfantsaremorelikelytobecomesociallycompetentthantheirinsecurepeers.Relationshipsformedwithpeersinfluencetheacquisitionofsocialskills,intellectualdevelopmentandtheformationofsocialidentity.Classificationofchildren'speerstatus(popular,neglectedorrejected)hasbeenfoundtopredictsubsequentadjustment.[8]Insecurechildren,particularlyavoidantchildren,areespeciallyvulnerabletofamilyrisk.Theirsocialandbehaviouralproblemsincreaseordeclinewithdeteriorationorimprovementinparenting.However,anearlysecureattachmentappearstohavealastingprotectivefunction.[83]Aswithattachmenttoparentalfigures,subsequentexperiencesmayalterthecourseofdevelopment.[8] Studieshavesuggestedthatinfantswithahigh-riskforautismspectrumdisorders(ASD)mayexpressattachmentsecuritydifferentlyfrominfantswithalow-riskforASD.[84]Behaviouralproblemsandsocialcompetenceininsecurechildrenincreaseordeclinewithdeteriorationorimprovementinqualityofparentingandthedegreeofriskinthefamilyenvironment.[83] Someauthorshavequestionedtheideathatataxonomyofcategoriesrepresentingaqualitativedifferenceinattachmentrelationshipscanbedeveloped.Examinationofdatafrom1,13915-month-oldsshowedthatvariationinattachmentpatternswascontinuousratherthangrouped.[85]Thiscriticismintroducesimportantquestionsforattachmenttypologiesandthemechanismsbehindapparenttypes.However,ithasrelativelylittlerelevanceforattachmenttheoryitself,which"neitherrequiresnorpredictsdiscretepatternsofattachment."[86] Thereissomeevidencethatgenderdifferencesinattachmentpatternsofadaptivesignificancebegintoemergeinmiddlechildhood.Therehasbeenacommontendencyobservedbyresearchersthatmalesdemonstrateagreatertendencytoengageincriminalbehaviorwhichissuspectedtoberelatedtomalesbeingmorelikelytoexperienceinadequateearlyattachmentstoprimarycaregivers[87]Insecureattachmentandearlypsychosocialstressindicatethepresenceofenvironmentalrisk(forexamplepoverty,mentalillness,instability,minoritystatus,violence).Environmentalriskcancauseinsecureattachment,whilealsofavouringthedevelopmentofstrategiesforearlierreproduction.Differentreproductivestrategieshavedifferentadaptivevaluesformalesandfemales:Insecuremalestendtoadoptavoidantstrategies,whereasinsecurefemalestendtoadoptanxious/ambivalentstrategies,unlesstheyareinaveryhighriskenvironment.Adrenarcheisproposedastheendocrinemechanismunderlyingthereorganizationofinsecureattachmentinmiddlechildhood.[88] Changesinattachmentduringchildhoodandadolescence[edit] Childhoodandadolescenceallowsthedevelopmentofaninternalworkingmodelusefulforformingattachments.Thisinternalworkingmodelisrelatedtotheindividual'sstateofmindwhichdevelopswithrespecttoattachmentgenerallyandexploreshowattachmentfunctionsinrelationshipdynamicsbasedonchildhoodandadolescentexperience.Theorganizationofaninternalworkingmodelisgenerallyseenasleadingtomorestableattachmentsinthosewhodevelopsuchamodel,ratherthanthosewhorelymoreontheindividual'sstateofmindaloneinformingnewattachments.[citationneeded] Age,cognitivegrowth,andcontinuedsocialexperienceadvancethedevelopmentandcomplexityoftheinternalworkingmodel.Attachment-relatedbehaviourslosesomecharacteristicstypicaloftheinfant-toddlerperiodandtakeonage-relatedtendencies.Thepreschoolperiodinvolvestheuseofnegotiationandbargaining.[89]Forexample,four-year-oldsarenotdistressedbyseparationiftheyandtheircaregiverhavealreadynegotiatedasharedplanfortheseparationandreunion.[90] Ideally,thesesocialskillsbecomeincorporatedintotheinternalworkingmodeltobeusedwithotherchildrenandlaterwithadultpeers.Aschildrenmoveintotheschoolyearsataboutsixyearsold,mostdevelopagoal-correctedpartnershipwithparents,inwhicheachpartneriswillingtocompromiseinordertomaintainagratifyingrelationship.[89]Bymiddlechildhood,thegoaloftheattachmentbehaviouralsystemhaschangedfromproximitytotheattachmentfiguretoavailability.Generally,achildiscontentwithlongerseparations,providedcontact—orthepossibilityofphysicallyreuniting,ifneeded—isavailable.Attachmentbehaviourssuchasclingingandfollowingdeclineandself-relianceincreases.Bymiddlechildhood(ages7–11),theremaybeashifttowardmutualcoregulationofsecure-basecontactinwhichcaregiverandchildnegotiatemethodsofmaintainingcommunicationandsupervisionasthechildmovestowardagreaterdegreeofindependence.[89] Theattachmentsystemusedbyadolescentsisseenasa"safetyregulatingsystem"whosemainfunctionistopromotephysicalandpsychologicalsafety.Thereare2differenteventsthatcantriggertheattachmentsystem.Thosetriggersinclude,thepresenceofapotentialdangerorstress,internalandexternal,andathreatofaccessibilityand/oravailabilityofanattachmentfigure.Theultimategoaloftheattachmentsystemissecurity,soduringatimeofdangerorinaccessibilitythebehaviouralsystemacceptsfeltsecurityinthecontextoftheavailabilityofprotection.Byadolescenceweareabletofindsecuritythroughavarietyofthings,suchasfood,exercise,andsocialmedia.[91]Feltsecuritycanbeachievedthroughanumberofways,andoftenwithoutthephysicalpresenceoftheattachmentfigure.Higherlevelsofmaturityallowsadolescentteenstomorecapablyinteractwiththeirenvironmentontheirownbecausetheenvironmentisperceivedaslessthreatening.Adolescentsteenswillalsoseeanincreaseincognitive,emotionalandbehaviouralmaturitythatdictateswhetherornotteensarelesslikelytoexperienceconditionsthatactivatetheirneedforanattachmentfigure.Forexample,whenteenagersgetsickandstayhomefromschool,surelytheywanttheirparentstobehomesotheycantakecareofthem,buttheyarealsoabletostayhomebythemselveswithoutexperiencingseriousamountsofdistress.[92]Additionally,thesocialenvironmentthataschoolfostersimpactsadolescentsattachmentbehavior,evenifthesesameadolescentshavenothadissueswithattachmentbehaviorpreviously.Highschoolsthathaveapermissiveenvironmentcomparedtoanauthoritativeenvironmentpromotepositiveattachmentbehavior.Forexample,whenstudentsfeelconnectedtotheirteachersandpeersbecauseoftheirpermissiveschoolingenvironment,theyarelesslikelytoskipschool.Positive-attachmentbehaviorishighschoolshaveimportantimplicationsonhowaschoolsenvironmentshouldbestructured.[93] Herearetheattachmentstyledifferencesduringadolescence:[94] Secureadolescentsareexpectedtoholdtheirmothersatahigherratethanallothersupportfigures,includingfather,significantothers,andbestfriends. Insecureadolescentsidentifymorestronglywiththeirpeersthantheirparentsastheirprimaryattachmentfigures.Theirfriendsareseenasasignificantlystrongsourceofattachmentsupport. Dismissingadolescentsratetheirparentsasalesssignificantsourceofattachmentsupportandwouldconsiderthemselvesastheirprimaryattachmentfigure. Preoccupiedadolescentswouldratetheirparentsastheirprimarysourceofattachmentsupportandwouldconsiderthemselvesasamuchlesssignificantsourceofattachmentsupport.[94] Attachmentstylesinadults[edit] Mainarticle:AttachmentinadultsSeealso:Attachmentmeasures Attachmenttheorywasextendedtoadultromanticrelationshipsinthelate1980sbyCindyHazanandPhillipShaver.[95]Fourstylesofattachmenthavebeenidentifiedinadults:secure,anxious-preoccupied,dismissive-avoidantandfearful-avoidant.Theseroughlycorrespondtoinfantclassifications:secure,insecure-ambivalent,insecure-avoidantanddisorganized/disoriented.[96] Securelyattached[edit] Securelyattachedadultshavebeen"linkedtoahighneedforachievementandalowfearoffailure(Elliot&Reis,2003)".Theywillpositivelyapproachataskwiththegoalofmasteringitandhaveanappetiteforexplorationinachievementsettings(Elliot&Reis,2003).Researchshowsthatsecurelyattachedadultshavea"lowlevelofpersonaldistressandhighlevelsofconcernforothers".[97]Duetotheirhighratesofself-efficacy,securelyattachedadultstypicallydonothesitatetoremoveapersonhavinganegativeimpactfromproblematicsituationstheyarefacing.[97]Thiscalmresponseisrepresentativeofthesecurelyattachedadult'semotionallyregulatedresponsetothreatsthatmanystudieshavesupportedinthefaceofdiversesituations.Adultsecureattachmentcomesfromanindividual'searlyconnectionwiththeircaregiver(s),genesandtheirromanticexperiences.[98] Withinromanticrelationships,asecurelyattachedadultwillappearinthefollowingways:excellentconflictresolution,mentallyflexible,effectivecommunicators,avoidanceofmanipulation,comfortablewithclosenesswithoutfearfulnessofbeingenmeshed,quicklyforgiving,viewingsexandemotionalintimacyasone,believingtheycanpositivelyimpacttheirrelationship,andcaringfortheirpartnerinthewaytheywanttobecaredfor.Insummation,theyaregreatpartnerswhotreattheirspousesverywell,astheyarenotafraidtogivepositivelyandaskfortheirneedstobemet.Securelyattachedadultsbelievethatthereare"manypotentialpartnersthatwouldberesponsivetotheirneeds",andiftheycomeacrossanindividualwhoisnotmeetingtheirneeds,theywilltypicallyloseinterestveryquickly.Inastudycomparingsecure-secureandsecure-variousattachmentstylerelationships,therewasnofluctuationinpositiverelationalfunctioning.However,inanycombinationoftwopartnerswithattachmentstylesoutsideofsecure,therelationshipsshowedhighlevelsofnegativerelationshipfunctioning.Thisresearchindicatesthatitonlytakesonesecurelyattachedpartnerwithinaromanticrelationshiptomaintainhealthy,emotionalrelationshipfunctioning.[98] Anxious-preoccupied[edit] Anxious-preoccupiedadultsseekhighlevelsofintimacy,approvalandresponsivenessfrompartners,becomingoverlydependent.Theytendtobelesstrusting,havelesspositiveviewsaboutthemselvesandtheirpartners,andmayexhibithighlevelsofemotionalexpressiveness,worryandimpulsivenessintheirrelationships.Theanxietythatadultsfeelpreventstheestablishmentofsatisfactorydefenseexclusion.Thus,itispossiblethatindividualsthathavebeenanxiouslyattachedtotheirattachmentfigureorfigureshavenotbeenabletodevelopsufficientdefensesagainstseparationanxiety.Becauseoftheirlackofpreparationtheseindividualswillthenoverreacttotheanticipationofseparationortheactualseparationfromtheirattachmentfigure.Theanxietycomesfromanindividual'sintenseand/orunstablerelationshipthatleavestheanxiousorpreoccupiedindividualrelativelydefenseless.[99]Adultswiththisattachmentstyleoftenprojecttheiranxietiesontootherwisebenignsocialinteractions,regardlessofiftheinteractionisface-to-faceorthroughatext-basedmediumsuchasinstantmessagingoremail.Theirthoughtsandactionscanleadtoapainfulcycleofself-fulfillingprophecies,possiblyleadingtoself-sabotage. Dismissive-avoidant[edit] Thissectionrelieslargelyorentirelyuponasinglesource.Relevantdiscussionmaybefoundonthetalkpage.Pleasehelpimprovethisarticlebyintroducingcitationstoadditionalsources.(August2022)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Dismissive-avoidantadultsdesireahighlevelofindependence,oftenappearingtoavoidattachmentaltogether.Theyviewthemselvesasself-sufficient,invulnerabletoattachmentfeelingsandnotneedingcloserelationships.Theytendtosuppresstheirfeelings,dealingwithconflictbydistancingthemselvesfrompartnersofwhomtheyoftenhaveapooropinion.Adultslacktheinterestofformingcloserelationshipsandmaintainingemotionalclosenesswiththepeoplearoundthem.Theyhaveagreatamountofdistrustinothersbutatthesametimepossessapositivemodelofself,theywouldprefertoinvestintheirownegoskills.Becauseoftheirdistrusttheycannotbeconvincedthatotherpeoplehavetheabilitytodeliveremotionalsupport.Theytrytocreatehighlevelsofself-esteembyinvestingdisproportionatelyintheirabilitiesoraccomplishments.Theseadultsmaintaintheirpositiveviewsofself,basedontheirpersonalachievementsandcompetenceratherthansearchingforandfeelingacceptancefromothers.Theseadultswillexplicitlyrejectorminimizetheimportanceofemotionalattachmentandpassivelyavoidrelationshipswhentheyfeelasthoughtheyarebecomingtooclose.Theystriveforself-relianceandindependence.Whenitcomestotheopinionsofothersaboutthemselves,theyareveryindifferentandarerelativelyhesitanttopositivefeedbackfromtheirpeers.Dismissiveavoidancecanalsobeexplainedastheresultofdefensivedeactivationoftheattachmentsystemtoavoidpotentialrejection,orgenuinedisregardforinterpersonalcloseness.[100] Fearful-avoidant[edit] Fearful-avoidantadultshavemixedfeelingsaboutcloserelationships,bothdesiringandfeelinguncomfortablewithemotionalcloseness.Thedangerouspartaboutthecontrastbetweenwantingtoformsocialrelationshipswhilesimultaneouslyfearingtherelationshipisthatitcreatesmentalinstability.Thismentalinstabilitythentranslatesintomistrustingtherelationshipstheydoformandalsoviewingthemselvesasunworthy.Furthermore,fearful-avoidantadultsalsohavealesspleasantoutlookonlifecomparedtoanxious-preoccupiedanddismissiveavoidantgroups.[101]Likedismissive-avoidantadults,fearful-avoidantadultstendtoseeklessintimacy,suppressingtheirfeelings.[5][102][103][104] Relationshipsinvolvingpeoplewithdifferentattachmentstyles[edit] Relationally,insecureindividualstendtobepartneredwithinsecureindividuals,andsecureindividualswithsecureindividuals.Insecurerelationshipstendtobeenduringbutlessemotionallysatisfyingcomparedtotherelationship(s)oftwosecurelyattachedindividuals.[citationneeded] Attachmentstylesareactivatedfromthefirstdateonwardsandimpactrelationshipdynamicsandhowarelationshipends.Secureattachmenthasbeenshowntoallowforbetterconflictresolutioninarelationshipandforone'sabilitytoexitanunsatisfyingrelationshipcomparedtootherattachmenttypes.Secureindividuals'authentichighself-esteemandpositiveviewofothersallowsforthisastheyareconfidentthattheywillfindanotherrelationship.Secureattachmenthasalsoshowntoallowforthesuccessfulprocessingofrelationallosses(e.g.death,rejection,infidelity,abandonmentetc.)Attachmenthasalsobeenshowntoimpactcaregivingbehaviorinrelationships(Shaver&Cassidy,2018). Assessingandmeasuringattachment[edit] Twomainaspectsofadultattachmenthavebeenstudied.Theorganizationandstabilityofthementalworkingmodelsthatunderlietheattachmentstylesisexploredbysocialpsychologistsinterestedinromanticattachment.[105][106]Developmentalpsychologistsinterestedintheindividual'sstateofmindwithrespecttoattachmentgenerallyexplorehowattachmentfunctionsinrelationshipdynamicsandimpactsrelationshipoutcomes.Theorganizationofmentalworkingmodelsismorestablewhiletheindividual'sstateofmindwithrespecttoattachmentfluctuatesmore.Someauthorshavesuggestedthatadultsdonotholdasinglesetofworkingmodels.Instead,ononeleveltheyhaveasetofrulesandassumptionsaboutattachmentrelationshipsingeneral.Onanotherleveltheyholdinformationaboutspecificrelationshipsorrelationshipevents.Informationatdifferentlevelsneednotbeconsistent.Individualscanthereforeholddifferentinternalworkingmodelsfordifferentrelationships.[106][107] Thereareanumberofdifferentmeasuresofadultattachment,themostcommonbeingself-reportquestionnairesandcodedinterviewsbasedontheAdultAttachmentInterview.Thevariousmeasuresweredevelopedprimarilyasresearchtools,fordifferentpurposesandaddressingdifferentdomains,forexampleromanticrelationships,platonicrelationships,parentalrelationshipsorpeerrelationships.Someclassifyanadult'sstateofmindwithrespecttoattachmentandattachmentpatternsbyreferencetochildhoodexperiences,whileothersassessrelationshipbehavioursandsecurityregardingparentsandpeers.[108] Associationsofadultattachmentwithothertraits[edit] Adultattachmentstylesarerelatedtoindividualdifferencesinthewaysinwhichadultsexperienceandmanagetheiremotions.Recentmeta-analyseslinkinsecureattachmentstylestoloweremotionalintelligence[109]andlowertraitmindfulness.[110] History[edit] Mainarticle:Historyofattachmenttheory Maternaldeprivation[edit] Mainarticle:Maternaldeprivation Theearlythinkingoftheobjectrelationsschoolofpsychoanalysis,particularlyMelanieKlein,influencedBowlby.However,heprofoundlydisagreedwiththeprevalentpsychoanalyticbeliefthatinfants'responsesrelatetotheirinternalfantasyliferatherthanreal-lifeevents.AsBowlbyformulatedhisconcepts,hewasinfluencedbycasestudiesondisturbedanddelinquentchildren,suchasthoseofWilliamGoldfarbpublishedin1943and1945.[111][112] PrayertimeintheFivePointsHouseofIndustryresidentialnursery,1888.Thematernaldeprivationhypothesispublishedin1951spurredashiftawayfromtheuseofresidentialnurseriesinfavouroffosterhomes.[113] Bowlby'scontemporaryRenéSpitzobservedseparatedchildren'sgrief,proposingthat"psychotoxic"resultswerebroughtaboutbyinappropriateexperiencesofearlycare.[114][115]AstronginfluencewastheworkofsocialworkerandpsychoanalystJamesRobertsonwhofilmedtheeffectsofseparationonchildreninhospital.HeandBowlbycollaboratedinmakingthe1952documentaryfilmATwo-YearOldGoestotheHospitalwhichwasinstrumentalinacampaigntoalterhospitalrestrictionsonvisitsbyparents.[116] Inhis1951monographfortheWorldHealthOrganization,MaternalCareandMentalHealth,Bowlbyputforwardthehypothesisthat"theinfantandyoungchildshouldexperienceawarm,intimate,andcontinuousrelationshipwithhismotherinwhichbothfindsatisfactionandenjoyment",thelackofwhichmayhavesignificantandirreversiblementalhealthconsequences.ThiswasalsopublishedasChildCareandtheGrowthofLoveforpublicconsumption.Thecentralpropositionwasinfluentialbuthighlycontroversial.[117]Atthetimetherewaslimitedempiricaldataandnocomprehensivetheorytoaccountforsuchaconclusion.[118]Nevertheless,Bowlby'stheorysparkedconsiderableinterestinthenatureofearlyrelationships,givingastrongimpetusto,(inthewordsofMaryAinsworth),a"greatbodyofresearch"inanextremelydifficult,complexarea.[117] Bowlby'swork(andRobertson'sfilms)causedavirtualrevolutioninahospitalvisitingbyparents,hospitalprovisionforchildren'splay,educationalandsocialneeds,andtheuseofresidentialnurseries.Overtime,orphanageswereabandonedinfavouroffostercareorfamily-stylehomesinmostdevelopedcountries.[113] Bowlby'sworkaboutparentalprovisionsafterchildbirthimplicatesthatmaternaldeprivationnegativelyinfluencestheattachmentbehaviortrajectoryofachild'slife.Ifamotherexperiencespost-partumanxiety,stress,ordepression,theattachmenttheyhavewiththeirchildcanbedisrupted.Itisimportantforpregnantwomentohavemental-healthsupportpreandpost-partumbecausementalillnessoftenresultsinlowfeelingsofattachmenttotheirinfant.[119] Formulationofthetheory[edit] FollowingthepublicationofMaternalCareandMentalHealth,Bowlbysoughtnewunderstandingfromthefieldsofevolutionarybiology,ethology,developmentalpsychology,cognitivescienceandcontrolsystemstheory.Heformulatedtheinnovativepropositionthatmechanismsunderlyinganinfant'semotionaltietothecaregiver(s)emergedasaresultofevolutionarypressure.HesetouttodevelopatheoryofmotivationandbehaviourcontrolbuiltonscienceratherthanFreud'spsychicenergymodel.Bowlbyarguedthatwithattachmenttheoryhehadmadegoodthe"deficienciesofthedataandthelackoftheorytolinkallegedcauseandeffect"ofMaternalCareandMentalHealth.[120] Ethology[edit] Bowlby'sattentionwasdrawntoethologyintheearly1950swhenhereadKonradLorenz'swork.[121]OtherimportantinfluenceswereethologistsNikolaasTinbergenandRobertHinde.[122]BowlbysubsequentlycollaboratedwithHinde.[123]In1953Bowlbystated"thetimeisripeforaunificationofpsychoanalyticconceptswiththoseofethology,andtopursuetherichveinofresearchwhichthisunionsuggests."[124]KonradLorenzhadexaminedthephenomenonof"imprinting",abehaviourcharacteristicofsomebirdsandmammalswhichinvolvesrapidlearningofrecognitionbytheyoung,ofaconspecificorcomparableobject.Afterrecognitioncomesatendencytofollow. Thisbottle-fedyoungmoosehasdevelopedanattachmenttoitscaregiver(atKostromaMooseFarm). Certaintypesoflearningarepossible,respectivetoeachapplicabletypeoflearning,onlywithinalimitedagerangeknownasacriticalperiod.Bowlby'sconceptsincludedtheideathatattachmentinvolvedlearningfromexperienceduringalimitedageperiod,influencedbyadultbehaviour.Hedidnotapplytheimprintingconceptinitsentiretytohumanattachment.However,heconsideredthatattachmentbehaviourwasbestexplainedasinstinctive,combinedwiththeeffectofexperience,stressingthereadinessthechildbringstosocialinteractions.[125]Overtimeitbecameapparentthereweremoredifferencesthansimilaritiesbetweenattachmenttheoryandimprintingsotheanalogywasdropped.[7] Ethologistsexpressedconcernabouttheadequacyofsomeresearchonwhichattachmenttheorywasbased,particularlythegeneralizationtohumansfromanimalstudies.[126][127]Schur,discussingBowlby'suseofethologicalconcepts(pre-1960)commentedthatconceptsusedinattachmenttheoryhadnotkeptupwithchangesinethologyitself.[128]Ethologistsandotherswritinginthe1960sand1970squestionedandexpandedthetypesofbehaviourusedasindicationsofattachment.[129]Observationalstudiesofyoungchildreninnaturalsettingsprovidedotherbehavioursthatmightindicateattachment;forexample,stayingwithinapredictabledistanceofthemotherwithouteffortonherpartandpickingupsmallobjects,bringingthemtothemotherbutnottoothers.[130]AlthoughethologiststendedtobeinagreementwithBowlby,theypressedformoredata,objectingtopsychologistswritingasiftherewerean"entitywhichis'attachment',existingoverandabovetheobservablemeasures."[131]RobertHindeconsidered"attachmentbehavioursystem"tobeanappropriatetermwhichdidnotofferthesameproblems"becauseitreferstopostulatedcontrolsystemsthatdeterminetherelationsbetweendifferentkindsofbehaviour."[132] Psychoanalysis[edit] EvacuationofsmilingJapaneseschoolchildreninWorldWarIIfromthebookRoadtoCatastrophe PsychoanalyticconceptsinfluencedBowlby'sviewofattachment,inparticular,theobservationsbyAnnaFreudandDorothyBurlinghamofyoungchildrenseparatedfromfamiliarcaregiversduringWorldWarII.[133]However,Bowlbyrejectedpsychoanalyticalexplanationsforearlyinfantbondsincluding"drivetheory"inwhichthemotivationforattachmentderivesfromgratificationofhungerandlibidinaldrives.Hecalledthisthe"cupboard-love"theoryofrelationships.Inhisviewitfailedtoseeattachmentasapsychologicalbondinitsownrightratherthananinstinctderivedfromfeedingorsexuality.[134]BasedonideasofprimaryattachmentandNeo-Darwinism,Bowlbyidentifiedwhathesawasfundamentalflawsinpsychoanalysis:theoveremphasisofinternaldangersratherthanexternalthreat,andtheviewofthedevelopmentofpersonalityvialinearphaseswithregressiontofixedpointsaccountingforpsychologicaldistress.Bowlbyinsteadpositedthatseverallinesofdevelopmentwerepossible,theoutcomeofwhichdependedontheinteractionbetweentheorganismandtheenvironment.Inattachmentthiswouldmeanthatalthoughadevelopingchildhasapropensitytoformattachments,thenatureofthoseattachmentsdependsontheenvironmenttowhichthechildisexposed.[135] Fromearlyinthedevelopmentofattachmenttheorytherewascriticismofthetheory'slackofcongruencewithvariousbranchesofpsychoanalysis.Bowlby'sdecisionslefthimopentocriticismfromwell-establishedthinkersworkingonsimilarproblems.[136][137][138] Internalworkingmodel[edit] ThephilosopherKennethCraikhadnotedtheabilityofthoughttopredictevents.Hestressedthesurvivalvalueofnaturalselectionforthisability.Akeycomponentofattachmenttheoryistheattachmentbehavioursystemwherecertainbehaviourshaveapredictableoutcome(i.e.proximity)andserveasself-preservationmethod(i.e.protection).[139]Alltakingplaceoutsideofanindividualsawareness,Thisinternalworkingmodelallowsapersontotryoutalternativesmentally,usingknowledgeofthepastwhilerespondingtothepresentandfuture.BowlbyappliedCraik'sideastoattachment,whenotherpsychologistswereapplyingtheseconceptstoadultperceptionandcognition.[140] Infantsabsorballsortsofcomplexsocial-emotionalinformationfromthesocialinteractionsthattheyobserve.Theynoticethehelpfulandhinderingbehavioursofonepersontoanother.Fromtheseobservationstheydevelopexpectationsofhowtwocharactersshouldbehave,knownasa"securebasescript."Thesescriptsprovideasatemplateofhowattachmentrelatedeventsshouldunfoldandtheyarethebuildingblocksofonesinternalworkingmodels.[139]infant'sinternalworkingmodelisdevelopedinresponsetotheinfant'sexperiencebasedinternalworkingmodelsofself,andenvironment,withemphasisonthecaregivingenvironmentandtheoutcomesofhisorherproximity-seekingbehaviours.Theoretically,securechildandadultscript,wouldallowforanattachmentsituationwhereonepersonsuccessfullyutilizesanotherasasecurebasefromwhichtoexploreandasasafehavenintimesofdistress.Incontrast,insecureindividualswouldcreateattachmentsituationswithmorecomplications.[139]Forexample,Ifthecaregiverisacceptingoftheseproximity-seekingbehavioursandgrantsaccess,theinfantdevelopsasecureorganization;ifthecaregiverconsistentlydeniestheinfantaccess,anavoidantorganizationdevelops;andifthecaregiverinconsistentlygrantsaccess,anambivalentorganizationdevelops.[141]Inretrospect,internalworkingmodelsareconstantwithandreflecttheprimaryrelationshipwithourcaregivers.Childhoodattachmentdirectlyinfluencesouradultrelationships.[142] Aparent'sinternalworkingmodelthatisoperativeintheattachmentrelationshipwithherinfantcanbeaccessedbyexaminingtheparent'smentalrepresentations.[143][144]Recentresearchhasdemonstratedthatthequalityofmaternalattributionsasmarkersofmaternalmentalrepresentationscanbeassociatedwithparticularformsofmaternalpsychopathologyandcanbealteredinarelativeshorttime-periodbytargetedpsychotherapeuticintervention.[145] Cybernetics[edit] Thetheoryofcontrolsystems(cybernetics),developingduringthe1930sand1940s,influencedBowlby'sthinking.[146]Theyoungchild'sneedforproximitytotheattachmentfigurewasseenasbalancinghomeostaticallywiththeneedforexploration.(Bowlbycomparedthisprocesstophysiologicalhomeostasiswhereby,forexample,bloodpressureiskeptwithinlimits).Theactualdistancemaintainedbythechildwouldvaryasthebalanceofneedschanged.Forexample,theapproachofastranger,oraninjury,wouldcausethechildexploringatadistancetoseekproximity.Thechild'sgoalisnotanobject(thecaregiver)butastate;maintenanceofthedesireddistancefromthecaregiverdependingoncircumstances.[1] Cognitivedevelopment[edit] Bowlby'srelianceonPiaget'stheoryofcognitivedevelopmentgaverisetoquestionsaboutobjectpermanence(theabilitytorememberanobjectthatistemporarilyabsent)inearlyattachmentbehaviours.Aninfant'sabilitytodiscriminatestrangersandreacttothemother'sabsenceseemedtooccurmonthsearlierthanPiagetsuggestedwouldbecognitivelypossible.[147]Morerecently,ithasbeennotedthattheunderstandingofmentalrepresentationhasadvancedsomuchsinceBowlby'sdaythatpresentviewscanbemorespecificthanthoseofBowlby'stime.[148] Behaviourism[edit] In1969,Gerwitzdiscussedhowmotherandchildcouldprovideeachotherwithpositivereinforcementexperiencesthroughtheirmutualattention,therebylearningtostayclosetogether.Thisexplanationwouldmakeitunnecessarytopositinnatehumancharacteristicsfosteringattachment.[149]Learningtheory,(behaviourism),sawattachmentasaremnantofdependencywiththequalityofattachmentbeingmerelyaresponsetothecaregiver'scues.Themainpredictorsofattachmentqualityareparentsbeingsensitiveandresponsivetotheirchildren.Whenparentsinteractwiththeirinfantsinawarmandnurturingmanner,theirattachmentqualityincreases.Thewaythatparentsinteractwiththeirchildrenatfourmonthsisrelatedtoattachmentbehaviorat12months,thusitisimportantforparents'sensitivityandresponsivenesstoremainstable.Thelackofsensitivityandresponsivenessincreasesthelikelihoodforattachmentdisorderstodevelopmentinchildren.[150]Behaviouristssawbehaviourslikecryingasarandomactivitymeaningnothinguntilreinforcedbyacaregiver'sresponse.Tobehaviourists,frequentresponseswouldresultinmorecrying.Toattachmenttheorists,cryingisaninbornattachmentbehaviourtowhichthecaregivermustrespondiftheinfantistodevelopemotionalsecurity.Conscientiousresponsesproducesecuritywhichenhancesautonomyandresultsinlesscrying.Ainsworth'sresearchinBaltimoresupportedtheattachmenttheorists'view.[151] Inthelastdecade,behaviouranalystshaveconstructedmodelsofattachmentbasedontheimportanceofcontingentrelationships.Thesebehaviouranalyticmodelshavereceivedsomesupportfromresearch[152]andmeta-analyticreviews.[153] Developmentssince1970s[edit] Inthe1970s,problemswithviewingattachmentasatrait(stablecharacteristicofanindividual)ratherthanasatypeofbehaviourwithorganizingfunctionsandoutcomes,ledsomeauthorstotheconclusionthatattachmentbehaviourswerebestunderstoodintermsoftheirfunctionsinthechild'slife.[154]Thiswayofthinkingsawthesecurebaseconceptascentraltoattachmenttheory'slogic,coherence,andstatusasanorganizationalconstruct.[155]Followingthisargument,theassumptionthatattachmentisexpressedidenticallyinallhumanscross-culturallywasexamined.[156]Theresearchshowedthatthoughtherewereculturaldifferences,thethreebasicpatterns,secure,avoidantandambivalent,canbefoundineverycultureinwhichstudieshavebeenundertaken,evenwherecommunalsleepingarrangementsarethenorm.Theselectionofthesecurepatternisfoundinthemajorityofchildrenacrossculturesstudied.Thisfollowslogicallyfromthefactthatattachmenttheoryprovidesforinfantstoadapttochangesintheenvironment,selectingoptimalbehaviouralstrategies.[157]Howattachmentisexpressedshowsculturalvariationswhichneedtobeascertainedbeforestudiescanbeundertaken;forexampleGusiiinfantsaregreetedwithahandshakeratherthanahug.SecurelyattachedGusiiinfantsanticipateandseekthiscontact.Therearealsodifferencesinthedistributionofinsecurepatternsbasedonculturaldifferencesinchild-rearingpractices.[157]ThescholarMichaelRutterin1974studiedtheimportanceofdistinguishingbetweentheconsequencesofattachmentdeprivationuponintellectualretardationinchildrenandlackofdevelopmentintheemotionalgrowthinchildren.[158]Rutter'sconclusionwasthatacarefuldelineationofmaternalattributesneededtobeidentifiedanddifferentiatedforprogressinthefieldtocontinue. ThebiggestchallengetothenotionoftheuniversalityofattachmenttheorycamefromstudiesconductedinJapanwheretheconceptofamaeplaysaprominentroleindescribingfamilyrelationships.ArgumentsrevolvedaroundtheappropriatenessoftheuseoftheStrangeSituationprocedurewhereamaeispracticed.Ultimatelyresearchtendedtoconfirmtheuniversalityhypothesisofattachmenttheory.[157]Mostrecentlya2007studyconductedinSapporoinJapanfoundattachmentdistributionsconsistentwithglobalnormsusingthesix-yearMainandCassidyscoringsystemforattachmentclassification.[159][160] Criticsinthe1990ssuchasJ.R.Harris,StevenPinkerandJeromeKaganweregenerallyconcernedwiththeconceptofinfantdeterminism(natureversusnurture),stressingtheeffectsoflaterexperienceonpersonality.[161][162][163]BuildingontheworkontemperamentofStellaChess,Kaganrejectedalmosteveryassumptiononwhichattachmenttheory'scausewasbased.Kaganarguedthathereditywasfarmoreimportantthanthetransientdevelopmentaleffectsofearlyenvironment.Forexample,achildwithaninherentlydifficulttemperamentwouldnotelicitsensitivebehaviouralresponsesfromacaregiver.Thedebatespawnedconsiderableresearchandanalysisofdatafromthegrowingnumberoflongitudinalstudies.SubsequentresearchhasnotborneoutKagan'sargument,possiblysuggestingthatitisthecaregiver'sbehavioursthatformthechild'sattachmentstyle,althoughhowthisstyleisexpressedmaydifferwiththechild'stemperament.[164]HarrisandPinkerputforwardthenotionthattheinfluenceofparentshadbeenmuchexaggerated,arguingthatsocializationtookplaceprimarilyinpeergroups.H.RudolphSchafferconcludedthatparentsandpeershaddifferentfunctions,fulfillingdistinctiverolesinchildren'sdevelopment.[165] Psychoanalyst/psychologistsPeterFonagyandMaryTargethaveattemptedtobringattachmenttheoryandpsychoanalysisintoacloserrelationshipthroughcognitivescienceasmentalization.Mentalization,ortheoryofmind,isthecapacityofhumanbeingstoguesswithsomeaccuracywhatthoughts,emotionsandintentionsliebehindbehavioursassubtleasfacialexpression.[166]Ithasbeenspeculatedthatthisconnectionbetweentheoryofmindandtheinternalworkingmodelmayopennewareasofstudy,leadingtoalterationsinattachmenttheory.[167]Sincethelate1980s,therehasbeenadevelopingrapprochementbetweenattachmenttheoryandpsychoanalysis,basedoncommongroundaselaboratedbyattachmenttheoristsandresearchers,andachangeinwhatpsychoanalystsconsidertobecentraltopsychoanalysis.Objectrelationsmodelswhichemphasisetheautonomousneedforarelationshiphavebecomedominantandarelinkedtoagrowingrecognitioninpsychoanalysisoftheimportanceofinfantdevelopmentinthecontextofrelationshipsandinternalizedrepresentations.Psychoanalysishasrecognizedtheformativenatureofachild'searlyenvironmentincludingtheissueofchildhoodtrauma.Apsychoanalyticallybasedexplorationoftheattachmentsystemandanaccompanyingclinicalapproachhasemergedtogetherwitharecognitionoftheneedformeasurementofoutcomesofinterventions.[168] Onefocusofattachmentresearchhasbeenthedifficultiesofchildrenwhoseattachmenthistorywaspoor,includingthosewithextensivenon-parentalchildcareexperiences.Concernwiththeeffectsofchildcarewasintenseduringtheso-called"daycarewars"ofthelate-20thcentury,duringwhichsomeauthorsstressedthedeleteriouseffectsofdaycare.[169]Asaresultofthiscontroversy,trainingofchildcareprofessionalshascometostressattachmentissues,includingtheneedforrelationship-buildingbytheassignmentofachildtoaspecificcare-giver.Althoughonlyhigh-qualitychildcaresettingsarelikelytoprovidethis,moreinfantsinchildcarereceiveattachment-friendlycarethaninthepast.[170]AnaturalexperimentpermittedextensivestudyofattachmentissuesasresearchersfollowedthousandsofRomanianorphansadoptedintoWesternfamiliesaftertheendoftheNicolaeCeaușescuregime.TheEnglishandRomanianAdopteesStudyTeam,ledbyMichaelRutter,followedsomeofthechildrenintotheirteens,attemptingtounraveltheeffectsofpoorattachment,adoption,newrelationships,physicalproblemsandmedicalissuesassociatedwiththeirearlylives.Studiesoftheseadoptees,whoseinitialconditionswereshocking,yieldedreasonforoptimismasmanyofthechildrendevelopedquitewell.Researchersnotedthatseparationfromfamiliarpeopleisonlyoneofmanyfactorsthathelptodeterminethequalityofdevelopment.[171]Althoughhigherratesofatypicalinsecureattachmentpatternswerefoundcomparedtonative-bornorearly-adoptedsamples,70%oflater-adoptedchildrenexhibitednomarkedorsevereattachmentdisorderbehaviours.[81] Authorsconsideringattachmentinnon-WesterncultureshavenotedtheconnectionofattachmenttheorywithWesternfamilyandchildcarepatternscharacteristicofBowlby'stime.[172]Aschildren'sexperienceofcarechanges,somayattachment-relatedexperiences.Forexample,changesinattitudestowardfemalesexualityhavegreatlyincreasedthenumbersofchildrenlivingwiththeirnever-marriedmothersorbeingcaredforoutsidethehomewhilethemotherswork.Thissocialchangehasmadeitmoredifficultforchildlesspeopletoadoptinfantsintheirowncountries.Therehasbeenanincreaseinthenumberofolder-childadoptionsandadoptionsfromthird-worldsourcesinfirst-worldcountries.Adoptionsandbirthstosame-sexcoupleshaveincreasedinnumberandgainedlegalprotection,comparedtotheirstatusinBowlby'stime.[173]Regardlessofwhetherparentsaregeneticallyrelated,adoptiveparentsattachmentrolestheywillstillinfluenceandaffecttheirchild'sattachmentbehaviorsthroughouttheirlifetime.[174]Issueshavebeenraisedtotheeffectthatthedyadicmodelcharacteristicofattachmenttheorycannotaddressthecomplexityofreal-lifesocialexperiences,asinfantsoftenhavemultiplerelationshipswithinthefamilyandinchildcaresettings.[175]Itissuggestedthesemultiplerelationshipsinfluenceoneanotherreciprocally,atleastwithinafamily.[176] Principlesofattachmenttheoryhavebeenusedtoexplainadultsocialbehaviours,includingmating,socialdominanceandhierarchicalpowerstructures,in-groupidentification,[177]groupcoalitions,membershipincultsandtotalitariansystems[178]andnegotiationofreciprocityandjustice.[179]Thoseexplanationshavebeenusedtodesignparentalcaretraining,andhavebeenparticularlysuccessfulinthedesignofchildabusepreventionprogrammes.[180] Whileawidevarietyofstudieshaveupheldthebasictenetsofattachmenttheory,researchhasbeeninconclusiveastowhetherself-reportedearlyattachmentandlaterdepressionaredemonstrablyrelated.[181] Neurobiologyofattachment[edit] Inadditiontolongitudinalstudies,therehasbeenpsychophysiologicalresearchontheneurobiologyofattachment.[182]Researchhasbeguntoincludeneuraldevelopment,[183]behaviourgeneticsandtemperamentconcepts.[164]Generally,temperamentandattachmentconstituteseparatedevelopmentaldomains,butaspectsofbothcontributetoarangeofinterpersonalandintrapersonaldevelopmentaloutcomes.[164]Sometypesoftemperamentmaymakesomeindividualssusceptibletothestressofunpredictableorhostilerelationshipswithcaregiversintheearlyyears.[184]Intheabsenceofavailableandresponsivecaregiversitappearsthatsomechildrenareparticularlyvulnerabletodevelopingattachmentdisorders.[185] Thequalityofcaregivingreceivedatinfancyandchildhooddirectlyaffectsanindividual'sneurologicalsystemswhichcontrolsstressregulation.[182]Inpsychophysiologicalresearchonattachment,thetwomainareasstudiedhavebeenautonomicresponses,suchasheartrateorrespiration,andtheactivityofthehypothalamic–pituitary–adrenalaxis,asystemthatisresponsibleforthebody'sreactiontostress.[186]Infants'physiologicalresponseshavebeenmeasuredduringtheStrangeSituationprocedurelookingatindividualdifferencesininfanttemperamentandtheextenttowhichattachmentactsasamoderator.Recentstudiesconveythatearlyattachmentrelationshipsbecomemolecularlyinstilledintothebeing,thusaffectinglaterimmunesystemfunctioning.[139]Empiricalevidencecommunicatesthatearlynegativeexperiencesproduceproinflammatoryphenotypecellsintheimmunesystem,whichisdirectlyrelatedtocardiovasculardisease,autoimmunediseases,andcertaintypesofcancer.[187] Recent[when?]improvementsinvolvingmethodsofresearchhaveenabledresearcherstofurtherinvestigatetheneuralcorrelatesofattachmentinhumans.Theseadvancesincludeidentifyingkeybrainstructures,neuralcircuits,neurotransmittersystems,andneuropeptides,andhowtheyareinvolvedinattachmentsystemfunctioningandcanindicatemoreaboutacertainindividual,evenpredicttheirbehaviour.[188]Thereisinitialevidencethatcaregivingandattachmentinvolvebothuniqueandoverlappingbrainregions.[189]Anotherissueistheroleofinheritedgeneticfactorsinshapingattachments:forexampleonetypeofpolymorphismofthegenecodingfortheD2dopaminereceptorhasbeenlinkedtoanxiousattachmentandanotherinthegeneforthe5-HT2Aserotoninreceptorwithavoidantattachment.[190] Studiesshowthatattachmentinadulthoodissimultaneouslyrelatedtobiomarkersofimmunity.Forexample,individualswithanavoidanceattachmentstyleproducehigherlevelsoftheproinflammatorycytokineinterleukin-6(IL-6)whenreactingtoaninterpersonalstressor,[191]whileindividualsrepresentingananxiousattachmentstyletendtohaveelevatedcortisolproductionandlowernumbersofTcells.[192]Althoughchildrenvarygeneticallyandeachindividualrequiresdifferentattachmentrelationships,thereisconsistentevidencethatmaternalwarmthduringinfancyandchildhoodcreatesasafehavenforindividualsresultinginsuperiorimmunesystemfunctioning.[193]Onetheoreticalbasisforthisisthatitmakesbiologicalsenseforchildrentovaryintheirsusceptibilitytorearinginfluence.[194] Afirstoverarchingtheoreticalaccountoftheneurobiologyofattachmentbasedoninsightsfromsocialcognitiveaffectiveneurosciencehasrecentlybeensuggestedbymeansofaneuro-anatomicalmodelofhumanattachment-NAMA.[195]NAMAproposesthatattachmentbehaviourinvolvesaseriesofcorecomponentsaspartofaprototypicalinitialattachmentpathway,andthatindividualdifferencesinsecureversusinsecure(avoidantandanxious)attachmentareassociatedwithmodificationsofthisinitialpathway.NAMAfurthermoresuggeststhattheneuralcomputationsassociatedwiththecorecomponentsaspartoftheattachmentpathwayscanbedividedintoemotional(approachandaversion)versuscognitive(emotionregulationandmentalstaterepresentation)NAMAmodules.Thereisincreasingevidencethatindividualdifferencesinsecureversusinsecure(avoidantandanxious)attachmentcanbetracedtodistinctpatternsofbrainactivity,structure,andconnectivitywithintheabovefourNAMAmodules.NAMAisthebasisofarecentlypublishedandcompletelyfree-of-chargebookforparentsbytheUKCharityBabygro.TheBabygroBookillustrates-inpicturesandwithminimalwords-howourbabies'brainsdevelop,andhowresponsivecommunicationbetweenparentandbabyleadstolaterlife(mental)healthandwellbeing.Finally,asanextensiontoNAMA,afirstneuro-anatomicalmodelofdisrupted/disorganizedattachment-NAMDA[196]-wassuggested.Altogether,thislineofinvestigationaimsatpromotinganewareaofresearch:thesocialneuroscienceofhumanattachment(SoNeAt).ThemainpromotersofSoNeAtaretheSocialNeuroscienceofHumanAttachmentorSoNeAtLab(PI:PascalVrticka)attheUniversityofEssex(Colchester,UK)aswellastheSpecialInterestResearchGroupSocialNeuroscienceofHumanAttachment(SIRGSoNeAt)aspartoftheSocietyforEmotionandAttachmentStudies(SEAS). Crime[edit] Attachmenttheoryhasoftenbeenappliedinthedisciplineofcriminology.Ithasbeenusedinanattempttoidentifycausalmechanismsincriminalbehaviour–withusesrangingfromoffenderprofiling,betterunderstandingtypesofoffenceandthepursuitofpreventativepolicy.Ithasbeenfoundthatdisturbancesearlyoninchild-caregiverrelationshipsareariskfactorincriminality.Attachmenttheoryinthiscontexthasbeendescribedas"perhapsthemostinfluentialofcontemporarypsychoanalyticallyorientedtheoriesofcrime".[197] History[edit] Inthe1870s,CesareLombroso's"borncriminal"theory,whichpositedthatcriminalitywasinnateandinherited,haddominatedthinkingincriminology.Theintroductionofattachmenttheoryincriminaltheorycreatedashiftawayfromseeinganindividualasbeing"geneticallydoomed"[198]tocriminality,toinsteadstudyingcriminalbehaviourfromadevelopmentalperspective.[citationneeded] TheoriginsofattachmenttheorywithincriminologycanbefoundintheworkofAugustAichhorn.Inapplyingpsychoanalysistopedagogy,hearguedthatabnormalchilddevelopmentstemmingfromrelationshipdifficultiesunderliesmanyinstancesofdelinquency.Hebelievedthatwithininsecurechild-parentrelationships,socializationmaygoawry,causinganarrestinthechild'sdevelopmentallowinglatentdelinquencytobecomedominant.[199] TheintersectionofcrimeandattachmenttheorywasfurtherresearchedbyJohnBowlby.Inhisfirstpublishedwork,Forty-fourJuvenileThieves,hestudiedasampleof88children(44juvenilethievesand44non-delinquentcontrols)toinvestigatethehomelifeexperiencesofthesetwogroups.Itwasidentifiedthatchild-motherseparationwasacausativefactorindelinquentcharacterformation,particularlyinthedevelopmentofan"affectionlesscharacter"oftenseeninthepersistentoffender.17ofthejuvenilethieveshadbeenseparatedfromtheirmothersforlongerthansixmonthsduringtheirfirstfiveyears,andonly2childrenfromthecontrolgrouphadsuchaseparation.Healsofoundthat14ofthethieveswere"affectionlesscharacters"distinguishingthemfromothersbytheirlackofaffection,noemotionalties,norealfriendships,andhaving"norootsintheirrelationships".[200]Hewrote: Theyhavearemarkablydistinctiveearlyhistory—prolongedseparationsfromtheirmothersorfoster-mothers—theconclusionforcesitselfupononethatwehaveherenotonlyadistinctclinicalsyndrome,thatoftheAffectionlessthief,butalsoanunusuallyclearexampleofthedistortinginfluenceofabadearlyenvironmentuponthedevelopmentofpersonality.[200] These'affectionless'delinquentswerechildrenwho,inthefirst12monthsoflife,eitherhadformedabondwiththeirmotherwhichhadsubsequentlybeendisrupted,orfailedtoformabondatall.14ofthe17affectionlessdelinquentshadexperiencedmultiplemovesbetweencaregivers.Amongstthecontrolgroup,therewerenoaffectionlesscharacters.Healsonotedthatdelinquentsofan'AffectionlessCharacter'werefarmorelikelytostealinapersistentandseriouswaythanaredelinquentsofothertypes. Agedistributionofcrime[edit] Therelationshipbetweenageandcrimeisoneofthemostreplicatedfindingsincriminology.Ithasbeennamed"oneofthebrutefactsofcriminology"[201]claimingthat"nofactaboutcrimeismorewidelyaccepted."[201]Ithasshownthattheprevalenceofoffendingincreasesduringadolescence,peaksaroundthelateteenageyearsandearlytwenties,andsubsequentlydecreasessharply.Whilsttheage-crimecurveisregardedasfact,themechanismsdrivingitarelargelydisputed.[202] Thetwomaintheories,developmentaltheoryandlife-coursetheory,haveattachmenttheoryintheirorigin.Developmentalperspectivesplaceimportanceontheroleofchildhoodexperiences,andarguethatthiscandeterminecriminalpatternslateroni.e.individualswhohavedisruptedchildhoodattachments,amongstotherfactors,willhavecriminalcareersthatcontinuelongintoadulthood.[203]Lifecourseperspectivesdonotentirelydenytheimportanceofchildhoodexperiences,butarguethatdevelopmentaltheoryistoodeterministicinnature.Insteadtheyarguethatbecausehumanshaveagency,everystageofthelifecoursematters.Earlychildhoodexperiencesremainimportant,albeitwithinaframeworkofcumulativedisadvantage,andattachmentslateroninlifecandeterminewhetheranindividualwillbelikelytooffendornot.[204] Developmentalperspectives[edit] Thedevelopmentalperspectiveaimstoexplaintheage-crimecurvebytwoqualitativelydistincttypesofpeopleandtheirbehaviouraltrajectories;adolescence-limited(thosewhostarttheircriminalcareerinadolescenceanddesistfromcrimebeforeadulthood)andlife-coursepersistent(thosewhobeginanti-socialbehaviourinadolescenceandcontinuethiscriminalbehaviourintoadulthood).[203] Attachmenttheoryhasbeenusedtoidentifydifferencesbetweenthesetwotrajectories.Life-coursepersistentoffendersstartwithdisruptedattachmentrelationshipsintheirchildhood,whichdrivesadisorderedpersonalityandlongtermantisocialbehavioursandcriminalcareers.Bycontrast,adolescence-limitedoffendersdonothavedisruptedfamilybondsandaredescribedashavinghealthypre-delinquentdevelopment.[203] Life-courseperspectives[edit] Thelife-courseperspectivearguesthatindividualsarenotautomaticallyassignedtoacategoryinadualtaxonomy.Instead,therearewithin-individualchangesincriminality,duetohumanagency.Individualswhohaveinsecureattachmentstylesinchildhoodcanthereforelatercreatemeaningfulsocialtiesandtherebydesistfromcrime,allowingchangestocriminalityatdifferentstagesinthelifecourse.[204] Typesofoffenses[edit] Sinceearlychildhoodrelationshipscaninfluenceinterpersonalrelationshipsthroughoutthelifespan,[205]attachmenttheoryhasbeenappliedinresearchintoparticularcrimes,particularlythosewhichtendtooccurwithincloserelationalties. Disruptedattachmentpatternsfromchildhoodhavebeenidentifiedasariskfactorfordomesticviolence.[206]Thesedisruptionsinchildhoodcanpreventtheformationofasecureattachmentrelationship,andinturnadverselyaffectingahealthywaytodealwithstress.[207]Inadulthood,lackofcopingmechanismscanresultinintenseconflictresultinginviolentbehaviour.[208]Bowlby'stheoryoffunctionalangerstatesthatchildrensignaltotheircaregiverthattheirattachmentneedsarenotbeingmetbyuseofangrybehaviour.Thishasbeenextendedtotheorizewhydomesticviolenceoccurs;anadultwithconsistentexperienceofinsecureattachmentmayusephysicalviolencetoexpresstheirattachmentneedsnotbeingmetbytheirpartners.Thisperceptionoflowsupportfrompartnerhasbeenidentifiedasastrongpredictorofmaleviolence. Otherpredictorshavebeennamedasperceiveddeficiencyinmaternalloveinchildhood,lowself-esteem.[207]Ithasalsobeenfoundthatindividualswithadismissiveattachmentstyle,oftenseeninanantisocial/narcissistic-narcissisticsubtypeofoffender,tendtobeemotionallyabusiveaswellasviolent.Individualsintheborderline/emotionallydependentsubtypehavetraitswhichoriginatefrominsecureattachmentinchildhood,andtendtohavehighlevelsofanger.[206] Ithasbeenfoundthatsexualoffendershavesignificantlylesssecurematernalandpaternalattachmentscomparedwithnon-offenderswhichsuggeststhatinsecureattachmentsininfancypersistintoadulthood.[209]Inarecentstudy,57%ofsexualoffenderswerefoundtobeofapreoccupiedattachmentstyle.[210]Thereisalsoevidencethatsuggestssubtypesofsexualcrimecanhavedifferentattachmentstyles.Dismissiveindividualstendtobehostiletowardsothers,andaremorelikelytooffendviolentlyagainstadultwomen.Bycontrast,childabusersaremorelikelytohavepreoccupiedattachmentstylesasthetendencytoseekapprovalfromothersbecomesdistortedandattachmentrelationshipsbecomesexualized.[211] Practicalapplications[edit] Asatheoryofsocioemotionaldevelopment,attachmenttheoryhasimplicationsandpracticalapplicationsinsocialpolicy,decisionsaboutthecareandwelfareofchildrenandmentalhealth. Childcarepolicies[edit] SocialpoliciesconcerningthecareofchildrenwerethedrivingforceinBowlby'sdevelopmentofattachmenttheory.Thedifficultyliesinapplyingattachmentconceptstopolicyandpractice.[212]In2008C.H.Zeanahandcolleaguesstated,"Supportingearlychild-parentrelationshipsisanincreasinglyprominentgoalofmentalhealthpractitioners,community-basedserviceprovidersandpolicymakers ...Attachmenttheoryandresearchhavegeneratedimportantfindingsconcerningearlychilddevelopmentandspurredthecreationofprogramstosupportearlychild-parentrelationships."[9]Additionally,practitionerscanusetheconceptsofattachmenttheorythatsuggestsdeeprelationshipswhichbuildsattachmentsecuritytowardsmentalhealthinterventions.Attachmentsecurityhasbeenfoundtostrengthenone'sabilitytocopewithstress,anxiety,andmaintainthat,inturn,cancontributetotheperson'swell-beingandmentalhealth[213]Forexample,previousstudieshavedemonstratedthatindividualswhodemonstrateavoidanceattachmentstylesexperienceslessstressanddistresswhenpresentedwithostracism.[214]However,findingqualitychildcarewhileatworkorschoolisanissueformanyfamilies.NIHDrecentstudyconveythattopnotchdaycarecontributestosecureattachmentrelationshipsinchildren.[215] Peoplehavecommentedonthismatterstatingthat"legislativeinitiativesreflectinghigherstandardsforcredentialingandlicensingchildcareworkers,requiringeducationinchilddevelopmentandattachmenttheory,andatleastatwo-yearassociatedegreecourseaswellassalaryincreasesandincreasedstatureforchildcarepositions".[216]Corporationsshouldimplementmoreflexibleworkarrangementsthatrecognizechildcareasessentialforallitsemployees.Thisincludesre-examinationofparentalleavepolicies.Toomanyparentsareforcedtoreturntoworktoosoonpostchildbirthbecauseofcompanypolicyorfinancialnecessity.Nomatterthereasonthisinhibitsearlyparentchildbonding.[139]Inadditiontothis,thereshouldbeincreasedattentiontothetrainingandscreeningofchildcareworkers.Inhisarticlereviewingattachmenttheory,Sweeneysuggested,amongseveralpolicyimplications,"legislativeinitiativesreflectinghigherstandardsforcredentialingandlicensingchildcareworkers,requiringeducationinchilddevelopmentandattachmenttheory,andatleastatwo-yearassociatedegreecourseaswellassalaryincreasesandincreasedstatureforchildcarepositions".[216] Historically,attachmenttheoryhadsignificantpolicyimplicationsforhospitalizedorinstitutionalizedchildren,andthoseinpoorqualitydaycare.[217]Controversyremainsoverwhethernon-maternalcare,particularlyingroupsettings,hasdeleteriouseffectsonsocialdevelopment.Itisplainfromresearchthatpoorqualitycarecarriesrisksbutthatthosewhoexperiencegoodqualityalternativecarecopewellalthoughitisdifficulttoprovidegoodquality,individualizedcareingroupsettings.[212] Attachmenttheoryhasimplicationsinresidenceandcontactdisputes,[217]andapplicationsbyfosterparentstoadoptfosterchildren.Inthepast,particularlyinNorthAmerica,themaintheoreticalframeworkwaspsychoanalysis.Increasinglyattachmenttheoryhasreplacedit,thusfocusingonthequalityandcontinuityofcaregiverrelationshipsratherthaneconomicwell-beingorautomaticprecedenceofanyoneparty,suchasthebiologicalmother.RutternotedthatintheUK,since1980,familycourtshaveshiftedconsiderablytorecognizethecomplicationsofattachmentrelationships.[218]Childrentendtohaveattachmentrelationshipswithbothparentsandoftengrandparentsorotherrelatives.Judgementsneedtotakethisintoaccountalongwiththeimpactofstep-families.Attachmenttheoryhasbeencrucialinhighlightingtheimportanceofsocialrelationshipsindynamicratherthanfixedterms.[212] Attachmenttheorycanalsoinformdecisionsmadeinsocialwork,especiallyinhumanisticsocialwork(PetruStefaroi),[219][220]andcourtprocessesaboutfostercareorotherplacements.Consideringthechild'sattachmentneedscanhelpdeterminethelevelofriskposedbyplacementoptions.[221][222]Withinadoption,theshiftfrom"closed"to"open"adoptionsandtheimportanceofthesearchforbiologicalparentswouldbeexpectedonthebasisofattachmenttheory.Manyresearchersinthefieldwerestronglyinfluencedbyit.[212] Clinicalpracticeinchildren[edit] Althoughattachmenttheoryhasbecomeamajorscientifictheoryofsocioemotionaldevelopmentwithoneofthewidestresearchlinesinmodernpsychology,ithas,untilrecently,beenlessusedinclinicalpractice.[citationneeded]Theattachmenttheoryfocusedontheattentionofthechildwhenthemotheristhereandtheresponsesthatthechildshowswhenthemotherleaves,whichindicatedtheattachmentandbondingofthemotherandthechild.Theattentiontherapyisthedonewhilethechildisbeingrestrainedbythetherapistsandtheresponsesdisplayedwerenoted.Thetestsweredonetoshowtheresponsesofthechild.[citationneeded] ThismaybepartlyduetolackofattentionpaidtoclinicalapplicationbyBowlbyhimselfandpartlyduetobroadermeaningsoftheword'attachment'usedamongstpractitioners.Itmayalsobepartlyduetothemistakenassociationofattachmenttheorywiththepseudoscientificinterventionsmisleadinglyknownas"attachmenttherapy".[223] Preventionandtreatment[edit] Mainarticle:Attachment-basedtherapy(children) In1988,Bowlbypublishedaseriesoflecturesindicatinghowattachmenttheoryandresearchcouldbeusedinunderstandingandtreatingchildandfamilydisorders.Hisfocusforbringingaboutchangewastheparents'internalworkingmodels,parentingbehavioursandtheparents'relationshipwiththetherapeuticintervenor.[224]Ongoingresearchhasledtoanumberofindividualtreatmentsandpreventionandinterventionprogrammes.[224]Inregardstopersonaldevelopment,childrenfromalltheagegroupsweretestedtoshowtheeffectivenessofthetheorythatisbeingtheorizedbyBowlby.Theyrangefromindividualtherapytopublichealthprogrammestointerventionsdesignedforfostercaregivers.Forinfantsandyoungerchildren,thefocusisonincreasingtheresponsivenessandsensitivityofthecaregiver,orifthatisnotpossible,placingthechildwithadifferentcaregiver.[225][226]Anassessmentoftheattachmentstatusorcaregivingresponsesofthecaregiverisinvariablyincluded,asattachmentisatwo-wayprocessinvolvingattachmentbehaviourandcaregiverresponse.Someprogrammesareaimedatfostercarersbecausetheattachmentbehavioursofinfantsorchildrenwithattachmentdifficultiesoftendonotelicitappropriatecaregiverresponses.Modernpreventionandinterventionprogrammeshaveprovensuccessful.[227] Reactiveattachmentdisorderandattachmentdisorder[edit] Mainarticles:ReactiveattachmentdisorderandAttachmentdisorder Oneatypicalattachmentpatternisconsideredtobeanactualdisorder,knownasreactiveattachmentdisorderorRAD,whichisarecognizedpsychiatricdiagnosis(ICD-10F94.1/2andDSM-IV-TR313.89).Againstcommonmisconception,thisisnotthesameas'disorganizedattachment'.Theessentialfeatureofreactiveattachmentdisorderismarkedlydisturbedanddevelopmentallyinappropriatesocialrelatednessinmostcontextsthatbeginsbeforeagefiveyears,associatedwithgrosspathologicalcare.Therearetwosubtypes,onereflectingadisinhibitedattachmentpattern,theotheraninhibitedpattern.RADisnotadescriptionofinsecureattachmentstyles,howeverproblematicthosestylesmaybe;instead,itdenotesalackofage-appropriateattachmentbehavioursthatmayappeartoresembleaclinicaldisorder.[228]Althoughtheterm"reactiveattachmentdisorder"isnowpopularlyappliedtoperceivedbehaviouraldifficultiesthatfalloutsidetheDSMorICDcriteria,particularlyontheWebandinconnectionwiththepseudo-scientificattachmenttherapy,"true"RADisthoughttoberare.[229] "Attachmentdisorder"isanambiguousterm,whichmayrefertoreactiveattachmentdisorderortothemoreproblematicinsecureattachmentstyles(althoughnoneoftheseareclinicaldisorders).Itmayalsobeusedtorefertoproposednewclassificationsystemsputforwardbytheoristsinthefield,[230]andisusedwithinattachmenttherapyasaformofunvalidateddiagnosis.[229]Oneoftheproposednewclassifications,"securebasedistortion"hasbeenfoundtobeassociatedwithcaregivertraumatization.[231] Clinicalpracticeinadultsandfamilies[edit] Asattachmenttheoryoffersabroad,far-reachingviewofhumanfunctioning,itcanenrichatherapist'sunderstandingofpatientsandthetherapeuticrelationshipratherthandictateaparticularformoftreatment.[232]Someformsofpsychoanalysis-basedtherapyforadults—withinrelationalpsychoanalysisandotherapproaches—alsoincorporateattachmenttheoryandpatterns.[232][233] Criticism[edit] Forattachmenttheorytobeviable,itmustbebelievedthatattachmentbehaviourisstronglyaffectedbyone'senvironment.A2016articlefromthePsychologicalBulletinsuggeststhatone'sattachmentislargelyduetoheredity.[234]Inaninterview,Dr.JeromeKaganalsosuggeststhatachild'sbehaviourislargelyduetotemperament,aswellassocialclassandculture.Hefurtherstates,"Attachmentisafarlesspopularexplanationin2019thanitwasinthe1960s,andin10to15years,it'sgoingtoberaretofindanyonedefendingthetheory.It'sjustdyingoutslowly...Yes,whathappenstoyouinthefirstyearortwooflifehasaneffect,butit'stiny.IfItakea1-year-oldchildwhoissecurelyattached,andtheparentsdieandthechildisadoptedbyacruelfosterparent,thatchildisintrouble.Theirsecureattachmentisuseless.Whenyouthinkaboutit,it'ssillythatafterthefirstyearyoucouldpredictwithanyconfidencewhatthispersonisgoingtobelikein20years.It'saridiculousidea."[235] Attachmenttheorysuggeststheideaofanall-encompassinglabeltodescribeoneperson,buta2013studyfromUtahStatesuggestsanindividualcanhavedifferentattachmentstylesinrelationtodifferentpeople.Thestudyfurtherconcludes,"Therelationshipbetweenfather-childandmother-childattachmentwasnotsignificant.Likewise,therelationshipbetweenchildtemperamentandparent-childattachmentwasnotsignificant.Also,parents'timeawayfromtheirchildwasnotasignificantpredictorofattachment."[236]Attachmenttheorymodelsarebasedonstressfulsituationsanditfocusesheavilyonattachmenttothemotheranddoesn'tvalueasmuchtheattachmentstootherfamilymembersandpeers.[237]SalvadorMinuchinsuggestedthatattachmenttheory'sfocusonthemother-childrelationignoresthevalueinotherfamilialinfluences:"Theentirefamily—notjustthemotherorprimarycaretaker—includingfather,siblings,grandparents,oftencousins,auntsanduncles,areextremelysignificantintheexperienceofthechild...Andyet,whenIhearattachmenttheoriststalk,Idon'thearanythingabouttheseotherimportantfiguresinachild'slife."[238] Inexploringtherelationshipbetweenchildhoodattachmentandromanticrelationships,a2013studyconcluded,"Thefirstvariableofattachmenttoparent,comparedtoromanticpartner,hadamediumeffectsize.Thiswouldsuggestthattheattachmenttoaparentisoccasionallyassociatedtotheattachmenttoromanticpartner,butisnotstronglycorrelated."Additionalvariablescomparingrelationshipquality/satisfaction,care/avoidanceandalienation/anxietyfailtohavestrongcorrelations.[239] Attachmenttheory,someargue,representsaWesternmiddle-classperspective,ignoringthediversecaregivingvaluesandpracticesinmostoftheworld.[240] Seealso[edit] Psychologyportal Zoologyportal Atlaspersonality Attachment-basedtherapy(children) Attachmentmeasures Attachmentparenting Attachmenttheoryandpsychologyofreligion Fathersasattachmentfigures Humanbonding Nurturekinship RelationshipScience Notes[edit] ^abCassidyJ(1999)."TheNatureofaChild'sTies".InCassidyJ,ShaverPR(eds.).HandbookofAttachment:Theory,ResearchandClinicalApplications.NewYork:GuilfordPress.pp. 3–20.ISBN 1572300876. ^abBrethertonI,MunhollandKA(1999)."InternalWorkingModelsinAttachmentRelationships:AConstructRevisited".InCassidyJ,ShaverPR(eds.).HandbookofAttachment:Theory,ResearchandClinicalApplications.NewYork:GuilfordPress.pp. 89–114.ISBN 1572300876. ^abPrior&Glaser2006,p. 17. ^BrethertonI(1992)."TheOriginsofAttachmentTheory:JohnBowlbyandMaryAinsworth".DevelopmentalPsychology.28(5):759–775.doi:10.1037/0012-1649.28.5.759. ^abHazanC,ShaverP(March1987)."Romanticloveconceptualizedasanattachmentprocess".JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology.52(3):511–24.doi:10.1037/0022-3514.52.3.511.PMID 3572722.S2CID 2280613. ^SimpsonJA(1999)."AttachmentTheoryinModernEvolutionaryPerspective".InCassidyJ,ShaverPR(eds.).HandbookofAttachment:Theory,ResearchandClinicalApplications.NewYork:GuilfordPress.pp. 115–40.ISBN 1572300876. ^abcdRutterM(May1995)."Clinicalimplicationsofattachmentconcepts:retrospectandprospect".JournalofChildPsychologyandPsychiatry,andAlliedDisciplines.36(4):549–71.doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1995.tb02314.x.PMID 7650083. ^abcdeSchafferR(2007).IntroducingChildPsychology.Oxford:Blackwell.pp. 83–121.ISBN 978-0-631-21628-5. ^abBerlinL,ZeanahCH,LiebermanAF(2008)."PreventionandInterventionProgramsforSupportingEarlyAttachmentSecurity".InCassidyJ,ShaverPR(eds.).HandbookofAttachment:Theory,ResearchandClinicalApplications.NewYorkandLondon:GuilfordPress.pp. 745–61.ISBN 978-1-60623-028-2. ^abPriorandGlaserp.15. ^BrethertonI(1992)."TheOriginsofAttachmentTheory:JohnBowlbyandMaryAinsworth".[Bowlby]beginbynotingthatorganismsatdifferentlevelsofthephylogeneticscaleregulateinstinctivebehaviourindistinctways,rangingfromprimitivereflex-like"fixedactionpatterns"tocomplexplanhierarchieswithsubgoalsandstronglearningcomponents.Inthemostcomplexorganisms,instinctivebehavioursmaybe"goal-corrected"withcontinualon-courseadjustments(suchasabirdofpreyadjustingitsflighttothemovementsoftheprey).Theconceptofcyberneticallycontrolledbehaviouralsystemsorganizedasplanhierarchies(Miller,Galanter,andPribram,1960)thuscametoreplaceFreud'sconceptofdriveandinstinct.Suchsystemsregulatebehavioursinwaysthatneednotberigidlyinnate,but–dependingontheorganism–canadaptingreaterorlesserdegreestochangesinenvironmentalcircumstances,providedthatthesedonotdeviatetoomuchfromtheorganism'senvironmentofevolutionaryadaptedness.Suchflexibleorganismspayaprice,however,becauseadaptablebehaviouralsystemscanmoreeasilybesubvertedfromtheiroptimalpathofdevelopment.Forhumans,Bowlbyspeculates,theenvironmentofevolutionaryadaptednessprobablyresemblesthatofpresent-dayhunter-gatherersocieties. 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References[edit] BowlbyJ(1953).ChildCareandtheGrowthofLove.London:PenguinBooks.ISBN 978-0-14-020271-7.VersionofWHOpublicationMaternalCareandMentalHealthpublishedforsaletothegeneralpublic.{{citebook}}:CS1maint:postscript(link) BowlbyJ(1971)[1969].AttachmentandLoss(Vol.1:Attachment)(1st ed.).London:PenguinBooks.ISBN 9780140212761. BowlbyJ(1979).TheMakingandBreakingofAffectionalBonds.London:TavistockPublications.ISBN 978-0-422-76860-3. BowlbyJ(1982).AttachmentandLoss(Vol.1:Attachment)(2nd ed.).NewYork:BasicBooks.ISBN 978-0465005437.LCCN 00266879.OCLC 11442968.NLM8412414. BowlbyJ(1999)[1982].Attachment.AttachmentandLossVol.I(2nd ed.).NewYork:BasicBooks.ISBN 0465005438.LCCN 00266879.OCLC 11442968.NLM8412414. CraikK(1967)[1943].TheNatureofExplanation.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-521-09445-0. ElliotAJ,ReisHT(August2003)."Attachmentandexplorationinadulthood".JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology.85(2):317–31.doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.317.PMID 12916573. HolmesJ(1993).JohnBowlby&AttachmentTheory.Makersofmodernpsychotherapy.London:Routledge.ISBN 041507729X. KarenR(1998).BecomingAttached:FirstRelationshipsandHowTheyShapeOurCapacitytoLove.OxfordandNewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 0195115015. Mercer,J(2006).UnderstandingAttachment:Parenting,childcare,andemotionaldevelopment.Westport,CT:PraegerPublishers.ISBN 978-0275982171.LCCN 2005019272.OCLC 61115448. PriorV,GlaserD(2006).UnderstandingAttachmentandAttachmentDisorders:Theory,EvidenceandPractice.ChildandAdolescentMentalHealth,RCPRTU.LondonandPhiladelphia:JessicaKingsleyPublishers.ISBN 9781843102458. TinbergenN(1951).TheStudyofInstinct.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-857722-5. Furtherreading[edit] LibraryresourcesaboutAttachmenttheory Resourcesinyourlibrary Resourcesinotherlibraries SchoreAN(1994).AffectRegulationandtheOriginoftheSelf:TheNeurobiologyofEmotionalDevelopment.Hillsdale,N.J.:L.ErlbaumAssociates.ISBN 978-1-1356-9392-3. KarenR(February1990)."BecomingAttached".TheAtlanticMonthly. vteAttachmenttheoryTheory Affectionalbond Attachmentinadults Attachmentinchildren Attachmentdisorder AttachmentandHealth Attachmentmeasures Attachmenttheory Dynamic-maturationalmodelofattachmentandadaptation Fathersasattachmentfigures Humanbonding Maternaldeprivation Objectrelationstheory Reactiveattachmentdisorder Notabletheorists MaryAinsworth WilliamE.Blatz JohnBowlby PatriciaMcKinseyCrittenden ErikErikson SigmundFreud HarryHarlow JeromeKagan MelanieKlein KonradLorenz MaryMain RenéSpitz NikolaasTinbergen Controversy Attachmentparenting Attachmenttherapy CandaceNewmaker Clinicalapplications Attachment-basedtherapy(children) Attachment-basedpsychotherapy Dyadicdevelopmentalpsychotherapy Others Historyofattachmenttheory vteHumanpsychologicaldevelopmentDevelopmentalpsychology Antenatal Cognitivedevelopmentofinfants Childdevelopment Positiveyouthdevelopment Youngadult Adultdevelopment Positiveadultdevelopment Maturity 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