Ideology | Psychology Wiki - Fandom

Meta-ideology posits that ideology is a coherent system of ideas, relying upon a few basic assumptions about reality that may or may not have any factual basis, ... 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SignIn Advertisement in: 20thcenturyphilosophy,Criticaltheory,Epistemology, and 8more Ethics Ideology Marxisttheory Philosophicalconcepts Philosophy Politicalphilosophy Sociology PagesusingISBNmagiclinks Ideology Viewsource History Talk(0) Assessment| Biopsychology| Comparative| Cognitive| Developmental| Language| Individualdifferences| Personality| Philosophy| Social| Methods| Statistics| Clinical| Educational| Industrial| Professionalitems| Worldpsychology| PhilosophyIndex: Aesthetics· Epistemology· Ethics· Logic· Metaphysics· Consciousness· PhilosophyofLanguage· PhilosophyofMind· PhilosophyofScience· SocialandPoliticalphilosophy· Philosophies· Philosophers· Listoflists An''ideology''isanorganizedcollectionofideas.ThewordideologywascoinedbyCountDestuttdeTracyinthelate18thcenturytodefinea"scienceofideas."Anideologycanbethoughtofasacomprehensivevision,asawayoflookingatthings(compareWeltanschauung),asincommonsense(seeIdeologyineverydaysociety)andseveralphilosophicaltendencies(seePoliticalideologies),orasetofideasproposedbythedominantclassofasocietytoallmembersofthissociety. (FortheMarxistdefinitionofideologyseeIdeologyasaninstrumentofsocialreproduction) Contents 1Ideologyineverydaysociety 2Historyoftheconceptofideology 3Theanalysisofideology 3.1Ideologyasaninstrumentofsocialreproduction 3.2LouisAlthusser'sIdeologicalStateApparatuses 3.3Feminismascritiqueofideology 4Politicalideologies 4.1Listofpoliticalideologies 4.1.1Ideologiesemphasizingclassstruggle 4.1.2Ideologiesemphasizingtheindividual 4.1.3Ideologiesemphasizingthecollective 4.1.4Ideologiesemphasizingethnicityornationality 4.1.5Ideologiesemphasizingtradition 4.1.6Ideologiesbasedonreligion 4.1.7Foreignpolicyideologies 4.1.8Otherideologies 4.1.9One-issuestances 5Epistemologicalideologies 6Seealso 7Externallinks 8References 8.1Furtherreading Ideologyineverydaysociety Inpublicdiscussions,someideasseemtoarisemorecommonlythanothers.Indeed,oftencompletelyseparatepeoplemaybefoundtothinkalikeinstartlingways.Forsocialscientists,onewayofexplainingsuchinstancesofcommonopinionisthepresenceofanideology. Everysocietyhasanideologythatformsthebasisofthe"publicopinion"orcommonsense,abasisthatusuallyremainsinvisibletomostpeoplewithinthesociety.Thisdominantideologyappearsas"neutral",holdingtoassumptionsthatarelargelyunchallenged.Meanwhile,allotherideologiesthatdifferfromthedominantideologyareseenasradical,nomatterwhatthecontentoftheiractualvisionmaybe.ThephilosopherMichelFoucaultwroteabouttheconceptofapparentideologicalneutrality.Ideologyisnotthesamethingasphilosophy.Philosophyisawayoflivinglife,meanwhileideologyisanalmostidealwayoflifeforsociety.Someattributetoideologypositivecharacteristicslikevigorandfervor;ornegativefeatureslikeexcessivecertitudeandfundamentalistrigor. Organisationsthatstriveforpowerwilltrytoinfluencetheideologyofasocietytobecomeclosertowhattheywantittobe.Politicalorganisations(governmentsincluded)andothergroups(e.g.lobbyists)trytoinfluencepeoplebybroadcastingtheiropinions. Whenmostpeopleinasocietythinkalikeaboutcertainmatters,orevenforgetthattherearealternativestothecurrentstateofaffairs,wearriveattheconceptofHegemony,aboutwhichthephilosopherAntonioGramsciwrote.Themuchsmallerscaleconceptofgroupthinkalsoowessomethingtohiswork.Modernlinguistsstudythemechanismofconceptualmetaphor,bywhichthis'thinkingalike'isthoughttobetransmitted. Historyoftheconceptofideology Perhapsthemostaccessiblesourcefortheoriginalmeaningof"ideology"isHippolyteTaine'sworkontheAncienRegime(firstvolumeof"OriginsofContemporaryFrance").HedescribesideologyasratherliketeachingphilosophybytheSocraticmethod,butwithoutextendingthevocabularybeyondwhatthegeneralreaderalreadypossessed,andwithouttheexamplesfromobservationwhichpracticalsciencewouldrequire.TaineidentifiesitnotjustwithDestuttdeTracy,butwithhismilieu,andincludesCondillacasoneofitsprecursors. Theword"ideology"wascoinedlongbeforetheRussianscoined"intelligentsia",orbeforetheadjective"intellectual"referredtoasortofperson(asubstantive).Thusthesewordswerenotaroundwhenthehard-headed,drivenNapoleonBonapartetooktheword"ideologues"toridiculehisintellectualopponents.Gradually,however,theterm"ideology"hasdroppedsomeofitscriticalsting,andhasbecomeaneutraltermintheanalysisofdifferingpoliticalopinions.Ideologicalreferencesareimportanttomanypeoplethroughouttheworld Theanalysisofideology Meta-ideologyisthestudyofthestructure,form,andmanifestationofideologies.Meta-ideologypositsthatideologyisacoherentsystemofideas,relyinguponafewbasicassumptionsaboutrealitythatmayormaynothaveanyfactualbasis,butaresubjectivechoicesthatserveastheseedaroundwhichfurtherthoughtgrows.Accordingtothisperspective,ideologiesareneitherrightnorwrong,butonlyarelativisticintellectualstrategyforcategorizingtheworld.Theplusesandminusesofideologyrangefromthevigorandfervoroftruebelieverstoideologicalinfallibleness.Excessiveneedforcertitudelurksatfundamentalistlevelsinpolitics,religions,andelsewhere.ItisnotonlytheCatholicpopeorotherbelieverswhoconsiderthemselvesinsomewaysinfallible.Assumptionsofinfallibilitycanbedetectedamonganti-religiousskepticsaswell,asexplainedin"SkepticismandAgnosticismasIdeology"atRoderickHindery'swebsiteonPropagandavsCriticalThought. TheworksofGeorgeWalfordandHaroldWalsby,doneundertheheadingofsystematicideology,areattemptstoexploretherelationshipsbetweenideologyandsocialsystems. DavidW.Minardescribessixdifferentwaysinwhichtheword"ideology"hasbeenused: Asacollectionofcertainideaswithcertainkindsofcontent,usuallynormative; Astheformorinternallogicalstructurethatideashavewithinaset; Bytheroleinwhichideasplayinhuman-socialinteraction; Bytherolethatideasplayinthestructureofanorganization; Asmeaning,whosepurposeispersuasion;and Asthelocusofsocialinteraction,possibly. ForWillardA.Mullins,anideologyiscomposedoffourbasiccharacteristics:itmusthavepowerovercognitions;itmustbecapableofguidingone'sevaluations;itmustprovideguidancetowardsaction;and,asstatedabove,mustbelogicallycoherent.Mullinsemphasizesthatanideologyshouldbecontrastedwiththerelated(butdifferent)issuesofutopiaandhistoricalmyth. TheGermanphilosopherChristianDunckercalledfora"criticalreflectionoftheideologyconcept"(2006).Inhiswork,hestrovetobringtheconceptofideologyintotheforeground,aswellasthecloselyconnectedconcernsofepistemologyandhistory.Inthiswork,thetermideologyisdefinedintermsofasystemofpresentationsthatexplicitlyorimplicitlyclaimtoabsolutetruth. Thoughtheword"ideology"ismostoftenfoundinpoliticaldiscourse,therearemanydifferentkindsofideology:political,social,epistemological,ethical,andsoon. Ideologyasaninstrumentofsocialreproduction KarlMarxproposedabase/superstructuremodelofsociety.Thebasereferstothemeansofproductionofsociety.Thesuperstructureisformedontopofthebase,andcomprisesthatsociety'sideology,aswellasitslegalsystem,politicalsystem,andreligions.ForMarx,thebasedeterminesthesuperstructure.Becausetherulingclasscontrolsthesociety'smeansofproduction,thesuperstructureofsociety,includingitsideology,willbedeterminedaccordingtowhatisintherulingclass'sbestinterests.Thereforetheideologyofasocietyisofenormousimportancesinceitconfusesthealienatedgroupsandcancreate'falseconsiousness'suchasthefetishforcommodities.CriticsoftheMarxistapproachfeelthatitattributestoomuchimportancetoeconomicfactorsininfluencingsociety. Theideologiesofthedominantclassofasocietyareproposedtoallmembersofthatsocietyinordertomaketherulingclass'interestsappeartobetheinterestsofall.GyörgyLukácsdescribesthisasaprojectionoftheclassconsciousnessoftherulingclass,whileAntonioGramsciadvancesthetheoryofculturalhegemonytoexplainwhypeopleintheworking-classcanhaveafalseconceptionoftheirowninterests. Thedominantformsofideologyincapitalismare(inchronologicalorder): classicalliberalism socialdemocracy neo-liberalism andtheycorrespondtothestagesofdevelopmentofcapitalism: extensivestage intensivestage contemporarycapitalism(orlatecapitalism,orcurrentcrisis) TheMarxistviewofideologyasaninstrumentofsocialreproductionhasbeenanimportanttouchstoneforthesociologyofknowledgeandtheoristssuchasKarlMannheim,DanielBellandJürgenHabermasamongstmanyothers.However,Mannheimattemptedtomovebeyondwhathesawasthe'total'but'special'Marxistconceptionofideologytoa'general'and'total'conceptionwhichacknowledgedthatallideologiesresultedfromsociallife(includingMarxism).ThisideahasbeenextensivelydevelopedbyPierreBourdieu. LouisAlthusser'sIdeologicalStateApparatuses LouisAlthusserproposedamaterialistconceptionofideology,whichmadeuseofaspecialtypeofdiscourse:thelacunardiscourse.Anumberofpropositions,whichareneveruntrue,suggestanumberofotherpropositions,whichare.Inthisway,theessenceofthelacunardiscourseiswhatisnottold(butissuggested). Forexample,thestatement'Allareequalbeforethelaw',whichisatheoreticalgroundworkofcurrentlegalsystems,suggeststhatallpeoplemaybeofequalworthorhaveequal'opportunities'.Thisisnottrue,becausetheconceptofprivatepropertyoverthemeansofproductionresultsinsomepeoplebeingabletoownmore(muchmore)thanothers,andtheirpropertybringspowerandinfluence(therichcanaffordbetterlawyers,amongotherthings,andthisputsinquestiontheprincipleofequalitybeforethelaw). AlthusseralsoinventedtheconceptofIdeologicalStateApparatusestoexplainhistheoryofideology.Hisfirstthesiswasthat"Ideologyhasnohistory":sincetheepistemologicalbreakisacontinuousprocess,andnotadeterminedevent,scienceandphilosophymustalwaysstruggleagainstideology,whichis,accordingtoMarx,definedasthereproductionofthepossibilitiesofproduction.Hissecondthesis,"Ideasarematerial",explainshismaterialistattitude,whichheillustratedwiththe"scandalousadvice"ofPascaltowardunbelievers:"kneelandpray,andthenyouwillbelieve",thusreversingtheprimacyofidealismtowardmaterialism.However,thismustn'tbemisunderstoodassimplebehaviorism,astheremaybe,asPierreMachereyputit,a"subjectivitywithoutsubject";inotherwords,aformofnon-personalliberty,asinDeleuze'sconceptionofbecoming-other. Feminismascritiqueofideology Naturalizingsociallyconstructedpatternsofbehaviorhasalwaysbeenanimportantmechanismintheproductionandreproductionofideologies.Feministtheoristshavepaidcloseattentiontothesemechanisms.AdrienneRiche.g.hasshownhowtounderstandmotherhoodasasocialinstitution. Politicalideologies Mainarticle:Politicalideology Insocialstudies,apoliticalideologyisacertainethical,setofideals,principles,doctrines,mythsorsymbolsofasocialmovement,institution,class,orlargegroupthatexplainhowsocietyshouldwork,andoffersomepoliticalandculturalblueprintforacertainsocialorder.Apoliticalideologylargelyconcernsitselfwithhowtoallocatepowerandtowhatendsitshouldbeused.Itcanbeaconstructofpoliticalthought,oftendefiningpoliticalpartiesandtheirpolicy. Studiesoftheconceptofideologyitself(ratherthanspecificideologies)havebeencarriedoutunderthenameofsystematicideology. Politicalideologiesregardpoliciesofmanydifferentaspectsofasociety,themostcentralofwhichare:economy,education,criminallaw,managementofcriminals,minors,animals,environment,immigration,eugenics,race,useofthemilitary,forcednationalism,andforcedreligion. Listofpoliticalideologies Therearemanyproposedmethodsfortheclassificationofpoliticalideologies.Seethepoliticalspectrumarticleforamorein-depthdiscussionofthesedifferentmethods(eachofwhomgeneratesaspecificpoliticalspectrum). Thefollowinglistattemptstodivideideologiesintoanumberofgroups;eachgroupcontainsideologiesthathaveacertainthemeorideaincommon.Notethatoneideologycanbelongtoseveralgroups,andthereissometimesconsiderableoverlapbetweenrelatedideologies. Ideologiesemphasizingclassstruggle Anarchism Socialism Communism Marxism Leninism Stalinism Maoism Trotskyism Leftcommunism Councilcommunism Eurocommunism WesternMarxism Ideologiesemphasizingtheindividual Libertariansocialism Anarchism Anarcho-syndicalism Anarcho-communism Christiananarchism Councilcommunism AutonomistMarxism Socialecology Liberalism Socialliberalism/Newliberalism Georgism Ordoliberalism Classicalliberalism Americanliberalism Libertarianism Anarcho-capitalism Individualistanarchism Neolibertarianism Minarchism Paleolibertarianism Geolibertarianism Ideologiesemphasizingthecollective Socialism Guildsocialism Participatoryeconomics Marxism Leninism Stalinism Maoism Trotskyism Leftcommunism Councilcommunism Eurocommunism Neo-marxism Africansocialism Religioussocialism Christiansocialism Democraticsocialism Infosocialism Libertariansocialism Utopiansocialism Socialdemocracy Communitarianism Communism Religiouscommunism Christiancommunism Populism Feminism Ecologism Ideologiesemphasizingethnicityornationality Nationalism Zionism Regionalism Pan-Africanism Pan-Arabism Ethnicsupremacy Fascism Neo-fascism Clericalfascism Nazism Neo-nazism Racism,Racialism Ideologiesemphasizingtradition Christiandemocracy Conservatism Liberalconservatism Paleoconservatism Neoconservatism Socialconservatism Ideologiesbasedonreligion Christian-basedideologies Christiananarchism Christiancommunism Christiansocialism Christiandemocracy Clericalfascism Dominionism Hindu-basedideologies Hindunationalism Islam-basedideologies Islamism,Muslimfundamentalism Jewish-basedideologies Religiouszionism Theocracy Communalism(SouthAsia) Religiouscommunism Religioussocialism Foreignpolicyideologies Internationalism,Cosmopolitanism Pacifism Unilateralism Justwartheory Neoconservatism Realism Otherideologies Centrism Republicanism Federalism Syndicalism Pragmatism Newhumanism Neoliberalism Economicliberalism Feminism ConsistentLifeEthic Militaristideology One-issuestances Agrarianism Greenpolitics Animalwelfarism Euro-scepticism Masculism Feminism Minoritiesdefence,Minoritarianism Pensioners'defence Majoritarianism Egalitarianism Epistemologicalideologies Evenwhenthechallengingofexistingbeliefsisencouraged,asinscience,thedominantparadigmormindsetcanpreventcertainchallenges,theoriesorexperimentsfrombeingadvanced.Thephilosophyofsciencemostlyconcernsitselfwithreducingtheimpactofthesepriorideologiessothatsciencecanproceedwithitsprimarytask,whichis(accordingtoscience)tocreateknowledge. Therearecriticswhoviewscienceasanideologyinitself,orbeinganeffectiveideology,calledscientism.Somescientistsrespondthat,whilethescientificmethodisitselfanideology,asitisacollectionofideas,thereisnothingparticularlywrongorbadaboutit. Othercriticspointoutthatwhilescienceitselfisnotamisleadingideology,therearesomefieldsofstudywithinsciencethataremisleading.Twoexamplesdiscussedhereareinthefieldsofecologyandeconomics. Aspecialcaseofscienceadoptedasideologyisthatofecology,whichstudiestherelationshipsbetweenlivingthingsonEarth.PerceptualpsychologistJ.J.Gibsonbelievedthathumanperceptionofecologicalrelationshipswasthebasisofself-awarenessandcognitionitself.LinguistGeorgeLakoffhasproposedacognitivescienceofmathematicswhereineventhemostfundamentalideasofarithmeticwouldbeseenasconsequencesorproductsofhumanperception-whichisitselfnecessarilyevolvedwithinanecology. Deepecologyandthemodernecologymovement(and,toalesserdegree,Greenparties)appeartohaveadoptedecologicalsciencesasapositiveideology. Someaccuseecologicaleconomicsoflikewiseturningscientifictheoryintopoliticaleconomy,althoughthesesinthatsciencecanoftenbetested.Themodernpracticeofgreeneconomicsfusesbothapproachesandseemstobepartscience,partideology. Thisisfarfromtheonlytheoryofeconomicstoberaisedtoideologystatus-somenotableeconomically-basedideologiesincludemercantilism,socialdarwinism,communism,laissez-faireeconomics,and"freetrade". Seealso Languageideology Externallinks TheStrengthofanIdea References Mullins,WillardA.(1972)"OntheConceptofIdeologyinPoliticalScience."TheAmericanPoliticalScienceReview.AmericanPoliticalScienceAssociation. Minar,DavidM.(1961)"IdeologyandPoliticalBehavior",MidwestJournalofPoliticalScience.MidwestPoliticalScienceAssociation. Furtherreading Hindery,Roderick,IndoctrinationandSelf-deceptionorFreeandCriticalThought?2001,esp.Ch.4. Hindery,Roderick,SkepticismandAgnosticismasIdeology,http://www.public.asu.edu/~sheilrod/ Hawkes,David(2003)Ideology(2nded.),Routledge,ISBN0-415-29012-0 Minogue,Kenneth(1985)AlienPowers:ThePureTheoryofIdeology,PalgraveMacmillan,ISBN0312018606 v·d·ePoliticalideologies Anarchism  |   Authoritarianism  |   Capitalism  |   Christian democracy  |   Communism  |   Communitarianism  |   Conservatism  |   Fascism  |   Feminism  |   Green politics  |   Islamism  |   Liberalism  |   Libertarianism  |   Masculism  |   Nationalism  |   Social democracy  |   Socialism RelationshiptoPoliticalParties:    Ideologiesofparties  |  Partiesbyideology ThispageusesCreativeCommonsLicensedcontentfromWikipedia(viewauthors). Categories 20thcenturyphilosophy Criticaltheory Epistemology Ethics Ideology Marxisttheory Philosophicalconcepts Philosophy Politicalphilosophy Sociology PagesusingISBNmagiclinks CommunitycontentisavailableunderCC-BY-SAunlessotherwisenoted. 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